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BUSINESS COMMUNICATIONS

Issues & Trends in Professional Communication {Chapter 1}
Communicating for Change in the New Economy
Communication: A transactional and relational process involving the meaningful exchange of information
Good communication skills make good business sense. Strong communication skills benefits employees and the companies they work for. HR specialists and business leaders increasingly look for new hires that have good communication skills
Effective communication nurtures collaborative and creative workplaces; builds credibility, accountability, and relationships; increases efficiency, workflow, and productivity; enhances problem-solving and decision-making, and creates wealth
Top skills for entry-level hires: collaboration/teamwork skills, communication skills, problem-solving skills, analytical capabilities, resiliency
Soft skill: A social, interpersonal, self-management, or language skill that complements a person’s technical skills
Hard skill: A technical skill (know-how and abilities) that a person requires for a specific job

The Knowledge Economy
Canada’s economy no longer based on raw materials and manufacturing; it is now knowledge-based, information is a valuable commodity
Practice of collecting, analyzing, and comparing large data sets, and identifying patterns in them to better understand consumer preferences, forecast trends, and attune strategies, products, and services, is increasingly common in businesses large and small
73 of surveyed businesses reported gaining value from the data and artificial intelligence (AI) projects they launched in marketing, customer-relationship management, data sharing, human resources and hiring, and security enhancement
Companies also rely on competitive intelligence, the practice of deriving data insight from external sources to gain a competitive advantage by utilizing information about a competitor’s products, services, and customers to make business decisions ~ ex. The Toronto Raptors front office has drawn insights from big data since 2016, when it partnered with IBM

The Risk Society
Risk = Potential for Loss; Manufactured Risks – Piracy, cyberwarfare, identity theft, date breach and risk communication – crucial for addressing concerned and developing protocols to manage risk
Unprecedented modernization and globalization have brought not only unprecedented progress but also unprecedented risk. Recognizing this, sociologists Anthony Giddens and Ulrich Beck have called our modern society a “risk society.”
Manufactured risks can be catastrophic, lost/compromised data impact commerce and credibility; legal costs and settlements impact bottom line
Piracy: unauthorized reproduction and distribution of copyrighted material, including video games, software, music, and films
Cyberwarfare: form of information warfare, usually politically motivated sabotage/hacking
Identity theft: act of acquiring and collecting an individual’s personal information for criminal purposes
Managing risk is essential for the active risk-taking that allows a dynamic economy to continue
Preventive measures and regulation are part of this stabilizing effort, as are the specialized protocols of crisis and risk communication
Sustainability and Corporate Responsibility
Corporations now have great power and influence; 42 of the 100 largest economies in the world are companies, not countries
Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR): A company’s voluntary contributions to sustainable development through the support of non-profit organizations and/or the creation of socially conscious corporate policies
CSR movement was born in the 1990s amid concerns over environmental catastrophes (such as the sinking of the Exxon Valdez), the first sustainability reports from forward-looking companies such as Ben & Jerry’s, and the emergence of the anti-globalization movement
The United Nations Global Compact (UNGC) asks companies to embrace, support, and enact core values related to human rights, labour standards, environmental protections, and anti-corruption
CRS reporting is increasingly important. It strengthens reputation, links with stakeholders, stakeholder value, investor appeal, and financial performance
Sustainable development: Economic development that maintains natural resources for future generations and recognizes the relationship between economic, social, and environmental issues

Business on a Global Scale
Globalized economy due to new technologies and outsourcing
Companies compete and operate across international markets
Increased foreign investment in Canada and Canadian companies
Skills in intercultural communication are crucial
The globalized business structure provides new opportunities as well as challenges for Canadian workers and their organizations
Canadian products must compete in international markets brands we may think of as 100 per cent Canadian may in fact be produced, in whole or in part, in other countries
Ex. Canadian aerospace and transportation giant Bombardier has facilities in 28 countries
The need to explore new and emerging markets, negotiate, buy and sell overseas, market products, and enter into joint ventures is anchored in effective communication with people from around the world; without this communication, none of these functions could be accomplished
The ability to communicate across cultural differences, time zones, and language barriers and to exercise intercultural sensitivity by respecting differences in customs, lifestyles, religions, and business etiquette ~ is crucial to business success in this new global economy
More Diverse Employee Base
Embracing diversity = greater productivity and competitive advantage
Diversity: Differences among people with respect to gender, race, ethnicity, age, sexual orientation, religious belief, and physical ability, which are to be acknowledged, valued, and celebrated in today’s workplace
Canada’s diverse, multi-generational workforce is not simply the outcome of Canada’s success in attracting talented immigrants or in cultivating social responsibility through fair and equitable employment policies
Matter of good economic sense, as companies capitalize on talents, expertise, creativity, and strengths across diverse groups to obtain greater productivity and competitive advantage.
A company’s human capital, or the individuals that make up an organization, either fuel or curb its success and are arguably its greatest asset
RBC Financial Group refers to this practice as “the diversity advantage” and cites it as a defining business trend in the twenty-first century
Demographic makeup of most workplaces and the interactions brought about by a worldwide economy makes promoting diversity an important component of management

Growing Millennial and Gen Z Workforce
Millennials + Gen Z = 64 of Canada’s workforce by 2020
Prefer to work from home ~ gig company
Work preferences: financial rewards and benefits; flexible work hours; work-life balance; ongoing learning, coaching, and real-time feedback; fulfillment – be themselves and develop strengths; being kept in the loop – access to information
Millennials: born between 1981 and 1996; 1/3 of Canada’s population
Gen Z: born in 1997 or after
Gig economy: a labor market characterized by a high number of freelance and contract jobs
Millennials are also known for their willingness to work in teams, communicate openly with managers, embrace new communication technologies, and change jobs frequently, in fact twice as often as previous generations, in order to achieve career goals
70 per cent of millennials prefer to work from home, making telecommuting, mobile offices, online collaboration tools, and cloud software more than just passing trends
If this new generation of employees has a personality, it could be summed up as the Pew Research Center has described it: confident, connected, and open to change

Teamwork Environments
Creativity demands different work modes and types of technology
Collaboration through cross-functional teams, in which individuals with different areas of expertise come together to share information for a common goal
Makes the most of a workforce’s creative potential by increasing individual involvement in decision-making and project development
Cross-functional teams: individuals with different areas of expertise come together to share information for a common goal
Disruptive Technologies
Disruptive Technologies: innovative, transformative products and services that create new opportunities and move up the market to replace established competitors
Laptops, e-email, texting, smartphones, WhatsApp, cloud computing and wearables, Bluetooth technology (instant messaging, Voice over, etc.)
Technological breakthroughs have brought us closer to a fully digitized society, complete with smart home security systems, “smart factories”, cyber-physical system integration and blockchain record-keeping technology
These technologies allow us to communicate farther, faster, and around the clock—to the point where we are always using one technology or another ~ new industrial revolution (Industry 4.0): automation, data exchange, machine learning

Digital Connectivity
Extensive impact on business communication, relationships, marketing, productivity
Web 3.0 will transform business (sales, marketing, product development) with its unprecedented ability to connect and communicate with customers; real-time analytics
Business-to-business (B2B) apps are used to support an organization’s internal business processes such as customer-relationship management, warehouse management, and salesforce automation
Business-to-consumer (B2C) apps fulfill different needs: content-oriented apps, such as Twitter and IM+, answer the need for information, communication, entertainment, and socialization; marketing-oriented apps promote brands and target them to young, digitally native demographics
Productivity apps: note-taking apps, business-planning apps, file-synching apps, and virtual assistant apps

New Economics
Attention Economy: new currency, always at a premium, and measured in views, tags, likes, followers
Distracting Economy: drawing consumers’ attention from one source to another
Share (peer) Economy: access to resources, not ownership – sharing, renting, swapping, gifting, lending, bartering
Place a monetary value on access to assets, they enable people who control that access to become part-time entrepreneurs
Though capital, labour, information, and knowledge are plentiful, attention is scarce, and businesses must compete and manage information strategically to attract it
Internet and social media have made information glut and overload a central fact of daily experience.
Surging volumes of content bring endless choices about what to view, read, listen to, and know.
For businesses and their stakeholders, getting attention quickly and memorably and forging connections and affinities online matters more now than it has ever before.
Share economy app-based services such as Airbnb (accommodation), Lyft (ride sharing), and TaskRabbit (micro jobs) have disrupted previously regulated taxi, car-rental, and hotel industries.
Because share economies place a monetary value on access to assets, they enable people who control that access to become part-time entrepreneurs.

Indigenous Economic Empowerment
Indigenous entrepreneurship emphasizes collectiveness, community development, indigenous knowledge
Broad range of sectors: eco-tourism, solar power, fashion, food, and beverage
Territorial acknowledgements from non-Indigenous businesses – important cultural protocols, show respect and help build relationships
Indigenomics: describes the effort of indigenous peoples to build their future and improve their communities and quality of life through equity, ownership, the environment, environmental planning and procurement
Territorial acknowledgement: statement that recognizes the traditional territory of Indigenous peoples who inhabit, or once inhabited, the land on which a meeting, conference, course, community event, occurs
Must be specific to the area and the Indigenous people(s) who call or called that area home or mentioning obligations to Indigenous communities and treaties, recognizing Indigenous title to traditional territories

Professionalism and Employee Engagement
Professionalism: demonstrating the competence and/or skill expected from a professional
Employee Engagement: employee’s genuine enthusiasm for and commitment to their work and organization

Why Professionalism is Important?
Acting professionally: put clients first, maintain confidentiality, use knowledge for honest, legal, and ethical purposes
Developing a shared work identity: educational background, professional training, experiences and expertise, membership in professional associations, shared work cultures, shared problem solving and customer relations
Creates benefits for individuals for individuals and organizations: higher status and authority, reduces conflicts, errors, and improves workflow, work environment, customer relations
A commitment to professionalism increases the chance that your behaviour, interactions, communications, and achievements will be viewed positively
Professionalism is good for business because it enhances a company’s efficiency, productivity, competitiveness, and reputation

Qualities, Characteristics and Expectations
Authentic organizations: Organizations that encourage employees to be their best selves by valuing and nurturing their perspectives and differences in attitudes
Ex. IT company Cisco Systems Canada has set up a reverse-mentoring program that gives new recruits the opportunity to share tips with corporate leaders and motivates the new employees by making them feel they can make a difference
Accountability: owning up to and making amends for mistakes
Action orientation/autonomy: knowing how to self-direct & executing tasks self-reliantly
Altruism: not letting self-interest prevent you from acting in the best interests of others
Attention to detail: being thorough and accurate in completing tasks
Audience – focused communications: considering the needs of your readers & listeners
Commitment to excellence: having high expectations for your performance
Commitment to service: understanding, responding to the needs of employees, customers
Competence: being able to do a job well
Confidence: maintain a calm, well-spoken demeanour, and inspiring trust
Co-operation & mutual support: committing to and helping achieve common goals
Dedication: hardworking and finishing what you start
Discretion: keeping private information private and avoiding causing offence
Ethical awareness: identifying ethical dilemmas and assessing the impact of values
Etiquette awareness: being familiar with codes for polite behaviour, avoiding making assumptions about people based on appearances
Expert judgement: making decision and finding solutions based on specialized knowledge, and experiences
Collegiality & corporate citizenship: sharing power and authority among colleagues, being pleasant and ready to help
Honesty: being forthright and authentic, telling the truth
Image awareness: meeting basic context-specific standards for grooming
Industry-standards compliance: having appropriate credentials, acting in accord with your organization’s goals and objectives
Integrity: having strong moral principles
Knowledge and commitment to professional development: keeping up-to date on important information and maintain the right credentials
Objectivity and professional detachment: maintain proper distance selectivity withholding expression of personal values
Cultural sensitivity and fit: respecting diversity and adapting to social groups at work
Organizational skill: prioritizing important tasks and planning ahead
Poise: maintaining self-control and remaining calm
Politeness & modesty: practising good manners, staying humble about accomplishments
Pride & satisfaction: deriving satisfaction from work that is up to standards
Problem-solving skills: finding effective solutions to difficult or complex issues
Punctuality: being on time and prompt in your communications
Fairness: making judgements that are free from discrimination
Reliability: demonstrating that others can count on you to show up and job is done well
Respect & consideration: showing it for authority, other people, rules and policies
Responsibility: taking charge of your own actions and actions of others
Service orientation: focusing on customers and their needs or concerns
Team orientation: contribute to the achievement of group and organizational goals
Trust: placing confidence in things and others and inspiring others’ belief in you

Professional Boundaries and Behaviours
Personal: emotional, physical and mental limits individuals establish to protect themselves from harm and to set their thoughts and feelings apart from those of other people
Professional: emotional, physical and mental limits that define what employees should and should not do and how they should be treated in the workplace
Relationships are defined by the boundaries we set to map out what is acceptable behaviour and what is off-limits in particular contexts
Boundaries create transparency and help build strong, respectful relationships
Professional boundaries help employees work safely, comfortably, and productively
Recognizing and respecting boundaries helps people work together more effectively, and it helps build an environment of transparency in which there is less chance of stress, blame, or bullying
Defining and establishing professional boundaries begins with recognizing the limits of your personal boundaries
Requires you to understand the guidelines your organization has set to regulate how you will behave toward others and how others will behave toward you
Be aware of how professional boundaries relate to communication: organizational rules and regulations (-/+ sanctions); norms (obligations that must be met); cognition (ways of thinking); individualized self-regulation (self-control)
Set professional boundaries: read job description and employment manual; reflect on personal values; talk to supervisors and superiors; observe workplace culture and how other interact
Crossing professional boundaries can have negative results: causes confusion, conflict, embarrassment, loss of respect and reputation; shifts attention off-task and away from a customer’s needs; disrupts co-worker relationships; lowers morale

Teamwork
Team: a group whose members have complementary skills and work toward a common mission or goal
Team orientation is a sought-after skill
Teams are the foundation of organizational life
Teams help organizations perform crucial functions, including meeting work needs, realizing specific outcomes, and sustaining a competitive advantage.
Teams are essential because of their capacities in accomplishing projects too large or too complex to be completed by individuals
Project Teams: formed on a time-limited basis; function to perform specific tasks
Cross-Functional Teams: bring together members from different departments or sectors
Intact Standing Teams: exist as ongoing organizational units
Virtual Teams: collaborate within online environments; overcome time/space barriers that challenge more conventional teams

Characteristics of High-Performing Teams
High-performance teams establish a record of working well together and succeeding according to these objectives
The experience of working on such a team can be exhilarating and empowering for its members; however, optimal experience and success depends on adhering to specific principles and boundaries
Team performance = degree to which team meets objectives for time, quality, and cost
Characteristics: trust, commitment, SMART goals, open communication, accountability, problem-solving, responsibilities, ground rules and decision making models

Team Decision-Making Models
Team leader is central to group success
Models: unilateral, input, delegation, consensus, and majority
Leader can help build cognitive trust among team members and enhance the team’s shared sense of collective efficacy
Cognitive trust: In a team setting, individuals’ beliefs in the reliability and dependability of fellow team members
Collective efficacy: In a team setting, the group’s belief in the ability of the team to organize and execute activities that will enable them to achieve their goal(s)
Several models, with differing team-leader roles, are open to teams for guiding the decision-making process
Unilateral decision-making by the team leader, who then informs other members of the decision (often preferred in time-sensitive situations)
Decision-making by the team leader with input from team members based on their expertise
Delegation to team members
Quality decisions involve a process where group members engage in open communication, respect each other’s input, and actively support any decision that is made
Stages in Team Development

Managing Team Conflict
Rely on co-operative approaches
Re-think problems
Recognize success for one is success for all
Look for areas of agreement
Listen to team members carefully
Combine good ideas
Avoid competing
Develop a sense of team identity and trust
Do not engage power struggles
Increase team member input

Virtual Teams
Use technology to overcome differences in location, time, outlook to achieve common goals
Communication between members must be frequent, predictable, timely, and clear
virtual communication has become increasingly common—business meetings, group tasks, work teams
Different from face-to-face communication and comes with unique advantages, namely saving time and money, but also challenges. Geographically dispersed team members may be less able to use informal communication approaches and pick up on non-verbal cues
Misunderstanding may be more common
Tools for Online Collaboration
Communication & Videoconferencing: Skype, Zoom, Flowdock, Slack, Microsoft Teams
Documentation: Google docs
File-sharing: OneDrive, Dropbox, Google Drive
Task & Project Management: asana, zoho, liquid planner, teamwork projects

Ethics & Legal Responsibilities
Business Ethics: the socially accepted moral principles and rules of business conduct
Company code of ethics: upholds important company values; sentizes managers and staff how to behave
polices, procedures and training: provide guidance during crises or times of change; strengthen brand image and company reputation; may provide legal benefits
Create marketplace advantage, enhance employee performance, promote a strong public image, prevent legal challenges, avoid huge sums in legal fees, and provide incentive for leniency in legal proceedings

Ethical Lapses & Why They Happen
The safety-in-numbers rationalization: the belief that such behaviour is excusable or guaranteed immunity
The head-in-the-sand rationalization: the belief that remaining silent about wrongdoing will make it go away, or fear that taking action to correct it will be seen as “rocking the boat.”
The between-a-rock-and-a-hard-place rationalization: the belief that a positive or favourable outcome justifies any means said to be necessary, even if they are unethical
The it’s-no-big-deal rationalization: an attempt to excuse wrongdoing as unimportant and minimize its consequences
The entitlement rationalization: self-deception based on the argument that one is entitled to break the rules and be free from consequences
The team-player rationalization: the reluctance to expose or confront colleagues about their wrongdoing out of fear that it will harm professional relationships and career advancement

Tips for Ethical Communication
Tell the truth, avoid libel, distinguish between fact and opinion, avoid language that evades responsibility, accept responsibility, show respect, use layout to highlight, don’t plagiarize, don’t suppress or de-emphasize important information, consider obligations, be careful online, offer value for money, be timely, know what you/cannot disclose
Libel is printed and recorded defamation and is characterized by false, malicious, or derogatory remarks - remarks that arouse hatred, contempt, or ridicule toward the individuals to whom they are applied. Common law protects every person against libel

Privacy in the Workplace
“the claim of individuals, groups or institutions to determine for themselves when, how and to what extent information about them is communicated to others”
In Canada, the Privacy Act explains how federally regulated public bodies can collect, use, and disclose individuals’ personal information
The Personal Information Protection and Electronic Documents Act (PIPEDA) applies to commercial transactions in the private sector and organizations that are federally regulated, include:
name, age, ID numbers such as a Social Insurance Number (SIN), income, ethnic origin
bank account number, credit records, loan records, transaction histories, tax returns
medical records, employee personnel files, and even voiceprints and fingerprints
Canada’s 2015 Digital Privacy Act requires organizations to notify affected individuals when a privacy breach has occurred and poses significant harm.
Governments and businesses collect such a wide array of information, compliance with PIPEDA has implications for communications practices at every level
Fair employers have clear policies that tell their employees exactly what personal information can be collected and how it will be used
Employees should be well advised of web, e-mail, and social media policies, random surveillance, and any monitoring of their Internet use
Criteria for Corporate Privacy Agreements
Provide accountability
Identify reason for collecting information
Gain valid consent
Collect only necessary information
Use information for intended purpose only
Maintain accuracy of information
Provide safeguards
Inform individuals of use information
Give individuals access to their information
Develop straightforward procedures for complaints

Oral Communication {Chapter 13}
Oral Presentations
An informative or a persuasive speech delivered using only notes and visual aids to guide the speaker’s performance ~ simple structure, specific purpose, clear main idea
Need to keep audience in mind and use organizational strategies to develop effective oral presentations
Deliver your message for easy comprehension and retention—simple structure, specific purpose, make main idea clear
Make sure your listeners know what to do next
Types of Oral Presentations
Workshops, seminars, training sessions
Staff meetings
Clubs, societies, and organizations
Speeches
Sales presentations
Oral reports or briefings

Analyzing the Audience
Essential to keep your audience’s needs, expectations, and perspective in mind if you hope to connect with them and achieve your purpose
Level of audience assessment depends on whether you are speaking to colleagues, visitors, or outsiders
Analyze by asking:
Why are they there?
What do they expect?
What is their attitude?
Will decision-makers be in audience?
How can you counter resistance?
Are there tensions within the audience?
What do they know already?
How will topic appeal to the audience?
What questions will they want answered?

Analyzing the Situation
What is the purpose of your presentation? What underlying concern has necessitated it?
What level of formality does your organization expect in oral presentations?
In what surroundings will you make your presentation?
Is the setting formal or informal?
How large is the room? Will it be equipped with a microphone or PA system? What are the acoustics and seating arrangements like?
What are the visual-aid facilities, and how are they placed relative to the audience?
How much time has been allotted for your presentation? How long will listeners expect you to speak?
Is your presentation the prime attraction (the only presentation to be given) or will there be presentations from other speakers?
How does your presentation tie in with the actions or topics of other participants?
What will happen before and after your presentation?
Setting:
Formal or informal?
Equipment, acoustics, seating?
Time (how long and when during the day)?
Structuring Presentations
Simple structure is best — keeps audience from getting lost
3 to 5 main ideas
3 common structures:
Logical
Build your points sequentially
use signpost words (my first point, my next point) to guide listeners
Narrative
Tell a story
Provides way to ground statistics and other abstract info
Must be well told, interesting, and relevant to objective
Formal
Intro: Tell them what you will say
Body: 3 main points
Conclusion: Tell them what you said
Repetitive to aid with comprehension and retention
Developing a 3-Part Presentation: Introduction
State unexpected statistic or fact or point out an intriguing aspect of your topic
Ask a question that raises on issue you will address
Display a key visual aid or perform a demonstration ~ one involves the audience
Cite a relevant quotation
Tell a joke or an anecdote, but only if it is fresh, appropriate and relevant to the situation
Arouse interest
Use a fact, question, demonstration, joke, or quotation
Introduce yourself and establish credibility
Make your purpose clear
Preview your main points
Developing a 3-Part Presentation: Body
Present info with context and analysis
Use fresh information
Give specific examples
Anticipate questions and give answers
Clearly announce each point
Various ways to organize info, depending on material and purpose:

Chronological
Topical/logical
Spatial
Journalistic Questions
Problem-solution
Exclusion of alternatives
Causal order
Comparison/contrast
Pro-con
Process

Developing a 3-Part Presentation: Conclusion

Restate main points
Return to first point
Challenge or call to action
Ask a question


Using Visual Aids

Keep them simple and consistent
Use sparingly
Focus is on you, not the visuals
Give each visual a title
Proofread


Types of Presentation Aids
flip charts: a large stand-mounted writing pad with bound pages that can be turned over at the top
Chalkboards, Whiteboards, and Blank Flip Charts
Suitable for under 30 people
Informal presentations
Prepared Flip Charts and Posters
Suitable for audiences of up to 50 people
Must be large enough and clear enough
Unappealing for tech-savvy audience
Videos, Films, Models, and Samples
Most effective in the form of short clips, introduced strategically to reinforce key points or concepts
Handouts
Summarize your presentation plan or provide a permanent record of graphs
Can greatly enhance the audience’s understanding and retention
Include outlines, articles, brochures, summaries, speaker notes, and printed copies of PowerPoint slides
Multimedia and Computer Visuals
Medium of choice for businesspeople today
PowerPoint, Prezi, and Keynote
Variety of formats and features, such as bulleted
Lists, numeric charts, tables, organizational charts (pie, bar, and line charts), photographs, audio clips, animations, and videos
Using Presentation Software
Develop a database of your contacts
Become involved in professional activities
Call new contacts
Make follow-up class
Tips

Use templates
Choose an effective colour scheme
Keep slides simple
Follow the eight-second rule
Make strategic use of images
Make data graphics clear and concise
Integrate video and audio with care
Don’t use too many slides
Create an agenda slide
Include a conclusion and reference slide
Use transitions and animations
One effect throughout presentation
Proofread slides before presenting
Use the “Slide Sorter” or “Outline View” to review presentation
Produce speaker notes as reminders
Back up your work
Rehearse the slide show
Never read from a slide
Keep the limitations of the software in mind


PeachaKucha Presentations

Brief, visual, energetic
20 slides no more than 20 sec each
6 mins, 40 sec
Powerful relevant images - theme/message


Methods of Delivery
Script
Extensive or complex data, with no margin for misinterpretation
Read the whole thing
Maintain eye contact
Intonation important; mark script where special expression required
Memorization
Can enliven connection but can backfire—lack of recall, slip-ups, repetitive expressions
May be better to memorize general shape of presentation, key points, opening remarks rather than word-for-word
Impromptu
Informal
Spur-of-the-moment
A few pleasant, well-chosen remarks, delivered in less than two minutes, are usually all that is required
Extemporaneous
A combination of thoughtful preparation and spontaneity
Somewhere between ad-libbing and reading aloud
Rehearsing a Presentation
Practise aloud
Practise on-site or set up conditions that closely resemble those in which you will be speaking
Time yourself
Make any adjustments, cutting out or adding material to ensure your presentation is the right length
Master your topic
Be able to speak confidently without relying word for word on a script
Record yourself
Record yourself, practise in front of a mirror, or ask a friend to give you feedback
Watch for distracting mannerisms, aim for well-pitched voice
Get a feel for the room
Inspect the seating arrangement
If you plan to use sound system / audiovisual equipment, make sure they are working properly
Learn stress-reduction techniques
Deep breathing
Muscle relaxing exercise
Delivering a Presentation
Dress appropriately
neat, comfortable, professional-looking clothing
Arrive early
Allow time before the presentation to familiarize yourself with surroundings, test acoustics and visibility
Maintain good posture and move in a relaxed, controlled, natural way
Sit without slumping or stand up straight and relax your shoulders
Avoid unnecessary hand gestures or facial expressions
Pause to collect yourself before beginning
Adjust your notes, take a breath
Memorize the first minute of your presentation so that you can look at the audience, not at your notes, during opening remarks
Maintain eye contact and use it to build rapport and gauge audience interest
Start by looking for a friendly face and making eye contact for a few seconds before you move on to someone else, occasionally glancing at the whole group
Listeners staring at the floor and looking around are visual cues that your audience has tuned out
Speak in a clear, audible voice, but do not shout
Aim for good, natural voice projection, gauged to the size of the audience and venue
Pace yourself
Speak slowly enough to enunciate clearly
Phrasing and inflection
Pitch—or tone of voice—should sound natural and match content
Downward inflection at the end of sentences to avoid sounding monotone and to emphasize key points
Never use slang or bad grammar
Your credibility is on the line—speaking in an unprofessional way is the fastest way to lose it
Pause briefly to collect your thoughts and create emphasis
Avoid fillers or verbal tics (such as um, like, and ah)
Plan transitions ahead of time to move easily from one topic to the next
Professional with Personality
Animate delivery by integrating voice and gestures
Be professional but let your personality shine through
Bring your presentation to a close
Thank your audience
Take questions
Make yourself available for follow-up discussion, if necessary
Handling Questions
Listen carefully to the entire question
If question is confusing or hard to hear, ask the questioner to repeat it or paraphrase it yourself
Separate strands of complex or two-part questions
Disentangle parts of a question and deal with them one at a time
Ensure your answers are long enough but not too long
Avoid launching into another speech
Ensure answers are not so short that they sound curt or rude
Don’t feel you have to answer every question
Say the answer will come later in the presentation
Throw the question to the audience for feedback and discussion
Never put down a questioner
Be courteous, even if a question seems silly
May be helpful to ask the questioner to explain further
Be firm with overzealous or long-winded questioners
Wait for a pause and politely interrupt, asking the questioner to briefly summarize the question
Stay on topic
Don’t be drawn off topic by an unrelated question
Don’t allow words to be put in your mouth
Don’t start by assuming a question is hostile
Keep your cool and avoid sarcasm
End with thanks
Thank the audience for their questions and feedback
Team-Based Presentations

Decide who will cover which topic
Decide how group will be governed
Establish ground rules
Develop deadlines
Decide how to handle questions
Allow time for rehearsals and prep
Appoint someone to introduce speakers
Use transitions and bridges between speakers
Adhere to time limits for each speaker



Special-Occasion Presentations
A speech made in appreciation, in acceptance of an award, in commemoration of an event, or by way of introduction.
Be conscious of the impression you create
Highlight concrete facts, not generalities
Remarks should be congenial, gracious, and genuine
Types of Meetings
Purposeful and organized
Internal or external
Formal (Robert’s Rules of Order) or informal
Can be good for individual’s profile
Can also be good for groups by bringing leaders to the forefront, providing networking opportunities, and strengthening staff and client relations
Internal meeting: A meeting that involves only personnel from within an organization
External meeting: A meeting that involves outsiders in addition to company personnel
Formal meeting: A scheduled meeting that operates according to a pre-set agenda under guided leadership for the purposes of achieving specific goals
Informal meeting: A small, sometimes unscheduled meeting that may operate without strict rules
Preparing for a Meeting
Purpose
Define the purpose of the meeting
Distribute an agenda or supporting materials at least two days in advance
Alternatives
Could email or phone call replace meeting?
Participants
Limit to most essential people—decision makers, implementors, people with key info
Problem-solving most effective in groups of 5 to 15
Location
Depends preferred environment, how well participants get along, how much space you need, and whether you need to be seen as being in control
Table and seating arrangement should enhance the flow of information and ideas
Scheduling
Time should be convenient to key decision-makers or fit in with personal working styles
Meetings of more than two hours should include a short break (5-10 minutes)
Agenda
Written document distributed in advance that sets the order of business for a meeting
Leading a Meeting
Assign responsibilities
Minute-taker
Someone to record points on flip-chart or digital screen for everyone to see
Establish ground rules
Cell phones off, e.g.
Start and end on time
Follow agenda
Identify action items
Avoid getting off track—summarize ramblers and lead discussion back on point
Set the tone
Speak up, make eye contact with others around the table, and stay relaxed
Keep hostile participants in check
Encourage a healthy respect for the facts
Establish zero tolerance for name-calling, sulking, and personal attacks
Try to remain neutral in disputes
Encourage participation
Ask group members for their input and listen carefully
Allow room for opposing viewpoints and consider different ways of doing things
Acknowledge and respond to what people say
Accept some conflict
Can stimulate creative thinking and challenge passive groupthink (practice of thinking or making decisions as a group, whereby conformity is rewarded and dissent punished; the result of groupthink is often poor decision-making
End with summary
Paraphrase all decisions and assignments and look ahead to future actions
Raise questions, ask for feedback, and clarify any misunderstanding
Participating in a Meeting

Maintain eye contact
Be an active listener
Take a few notes and jot down questions
Contribute solutions
Try not to dominate the discussion
Speak clearly and direct



Meeting Minutes
A written record of what occurred at a meeting, who attended it, and when and where it was convened
Formal meetings adhere to a system known as Robert’s Rules of Order (from a book of the same name); require minutes be recorded a specific way
Name of group of committee
Date, time, place
Tope and type of meeting
List of present, absent
Call to order
Approval of previous minutes
New business/announcements
Record or reports, discussions, resolution, votes, key decisions,
Assignments, actions, due dates
Time convened, time adjourned, location of next meeting
Name & signature of recording secretary
Groupware-Supported Meetings
Groupware: Software designed to facilitate group work by a number of different user
virtual meeting: A meeting that uses particular software or a website to allow participants in various locations to share ideas and hold discussions in real time
web-conferencing: Synchronous web-supported communication allowing for the real-time transmission of sound and images to various locations
E-mail meetings: allow participants to respond at different times and make the meeting process more democratic by doing away with facilitators

Making Calls
Identify yourself
When call someone who does not know you, give your name and identify the organization you represent
Be courteous and attentive
Give your full attention
Plan ahead
Plan what you will say
Visualize the person to whom you will be speaking
Leave clear messages
Leave your name (including the correct spelling, if necessary), business title, company name, phone number, and a brief message (including the best time to reach you)
Mind your manners
Return calls
Place calls when others are likely to receive them
End professionally
As the caller, it is your responsibility to close the conversation

Receiving Calls
Answer promptly
Within two or three rings
Identify yourself clearly
full name and department affiliation
Use proper telephone language
Positive and appropriate— do not say Hang on a sec, say May I put you on hold; do not say Who is this? say May I ask who’s calling, please?
Be professional when answering a call intended for a colleague
Don’t give out information that might embarrass a co-worker
Indicate when the person will be available to take the call
Putting calls on hold
Don’t leave the caller on hold for more than 30 or 45 seconds
Listen actively
Pay close attention to what the caller says and to what the caller’s tone of voice reveals
Learn to use your organization’s phone system
Lost or misdirected calls can result in frustration and lost business.
Ask for permission before you transfer a call,
Take accurate phone messages
Include name of the person for whom the message was left, the caller’s name, department, and company, the date and time, message and instructions if any
Using Voicemail Productivity
Record an appropriate outgoing message.
Be friendly, informative, and professional
Make sure your greeting is up to date
Re-record your greeting to reflect changing circumstances (e.g., you’re on holidays or out of the office for an extended period)
Dealing with the Media
Anticipate questions
Be aware of recent events
Know your story, practise telling it, and stick to it.
Crystallize story into no more than three key points or a few hard-hitting sentences
Try to relate the reporter’s questions to one or more of your key points
Tone defines the impression you make
Stay calm and be positive and helpful
Never overreact to a reporter’s attitude
Assess what information will be valuable to the reporter
Begin with a brief position statement to set the tone
Don’t get too technical
Avoid buzzwords and acronyms.
Use language that the reporter and the audience will understand
Speak in sound bites
Limit your answers to between five and twenty words
Short answers may help you get your message out more effectively
Tell the truth
Nothing is off the record
Be alert and on guard
Avoid speculating, making off-hand comments
Look your best but be yourself
Be engaged and show enthusiasm, using examples to enrich your story.
Let the reporter ask questions; don’t try to give all your information immediately

TV Interview Tips
Eye contact
Be camera-ready
Dress conservatively yet comfortably
Be engaging
Speak clearly and distinctly, pausing strategically to avoid fillers – ah or hum

Getting the Message Across {Chapter 2}
Communication Process
Situated: embedded in a particular environment or socio-cultural context
Relational: involves ability to interact effectively and ethically at a given moment
Transactional: exits as a co-operative activity in which people adapt to one another

Elements of Communication Process
Sender: form that the idea ultimately assumes its content, tone, emphasis, and organization ~ shaped by the sender’s context, knowledge, attitudes, background, and other assumptions based on the sender’s experience
Encoding: message can be encoded verbally or non-verbally in writing, speech, or gestures with the goal that it will eventually be understood
The sender must consider the receiver’s context, knowledge, attitudes, and communication skills and then choose the right code to convey the intended meaning.
Channel: delivery can be by spoken word, letter, memo, report, telephone, computer, voice, or gesture
Synchronous (i.e., communication take places directly, at the same time or in real time)
Asynchronous (i.e., information is stored or archived and accessed later so that sender and receiver do not need to be present at the same time).
Receiver: decodes the message ~ life experiences, knowledge, attitudes, and context can influence how they interpret and respond to the message
Feedback: the receiver’s discernible response to a message
Barriers to Effective Communication
Channel Overload: occurs when messages transmitted through a channel exceeds it capacity
Emotional Interference: strong feelings can interfere with an individual’s ability to communicate effectively – preventing them from encoding or decoding a message
Physical & Technical Interference: technical difficulties arise – phone lines jam, computers crash, mobile connections drop
Channel Barriers: choosing the wrong communication channel
Information Overload: occurs when a channel carries too much information for receiver to absorb or when too many messages are transmitted
Semantic Interference: words do not have assigned or fixed meanings – a word may mean different things to different people and its meaning can change in various contexts ~ creates a wide margin for misinterpretation and miscommunication ~ bypassing
Mixed Messages: some messages give off conflicting signals, resulting in misunderstanding when the receiver can’t decide which signal to observe ~ speaker might express agreement but raise their eyebrows or roll their eyes, suggesting lingering doubts and reservations
Environmental Interference: people’s frames of reference or ways of seeing the world based on their own experiences, culture, personality, and education – can be miles apart

Information Richness Communication Channels
When people chose channels, they are dealing with various factors
Communication Apprehension: tension about communication
Channel Richness: the amount of information that can be transmitted during a communication episode

Barriers to Effective Communication
Be timely and time-sensitive: routine situations—respond as soon as you have the information you intend to pass on; emotionally charged situations—choose the right time, when others will be receptive to your communications
Be purposeful: In all but the very briefest message, state your purpose for meeting, talking, or writing at the beginning
Be a good listener and a careful reader: Give your full attention to the message and its context
Be context-sensitive: Consider the physical context (time and location of the exchange), the history or previous communications between the participants, the type of relationship between the participants, the moods or feelings each participant may be experiencing, and the values, attitudes, and beliefs each participant brings to the interaction
Be proactive: If you are unsure about what you have heard or read, verify the facts and get more information before proceeding
Interpersonal Communication
Reflect the emotional temperature of the relationships in a workplace – are constructed and sustained through differing levels of trust, control, intimacy, distance
Sharing meaning: Shared meaning occurs when there is similarity between the sender’s intentions and the receiver’s interpretation of a message
Meeting social goals: Examples include making acquaintance, gaining compliance, and reducing conflict
Managing personal identity: Personal identity distinguishes you from other people and has three dimensions: (i) who you think you are, as reflected in your values, beliefs, and attitudes; (ii) who other people think you are; and (iii) who you want others to think you are. In interpersonal communication, self is very important to the communication process
Conducting relationships: Interpersonal communication provides the means for managing our relationships
Emotional intelligence: The ability to be in touch with one’s emotions, manage one’s behaviors, and understand and respond to others’ emotions so as to foster strong interpersonal relationships
Emotional intelligence is essential to creating competent, appropriate, and ethical messages
Personal competence: the ability to stay in touch with your emotions and use this awareness to manage behavioural tendencies
Social competence: the ability to understand other people’s moods, motives, and behaviours in order to improve given relationships.
Self-awareness: your ability to perceive your emotions
Self-management: your ability to use your emotional awareness to stay flexible and direct your behaviour positively and productively
Social awareness: the ability to read emotions in other people
Relationship management: the ability to manage relationships through an awareness of your emotions and the emotions of others

Small-Group Communication

3 – 20 people
Participants interact freely
Pursue common goals
Links between people are vital
Project-planning meetings
3 people = 6 paths
4 people = 12 paths
5 people = 16 paths


Organizational Communication
Organizational communication takes place within a hierarchical social system composed of interdependent stakeholder groups, such as current and potential employees, clients, customers, suppliers, and regulators.
An organization’s culture is created through communication and develops as its members create and market products and services, respond to the concerns and demands of customers and external stakeholders, and coordinate employees and their tasks and initiatives.
Pursues common goals
Large business and industries
Involves employees, clients, customers, suppliers, regulations

Intercultural Communication
Management of messages between people/groups from different cultural backgrounds
Adapt communication to account for cultural differences in communication behavior, both verbal and non-verbal
Ex. E-mail sent from an English-speaking organization in Winnipeg to a supplier in Shanghai involves careful consideration of intercultural issues

Mass Communication

One to many
Sent to large, anonymous audience
Indirect transmission – not face to face
Media: radio, tv, newspaper, magazine, webcast, social media


Meta – Communication
Secondary communication – indirect cues about how a piece of information is meant to be interpreted ~ congruent or incongruent



Non-Verbal Communication
Communication that does not use words but takes place through, gestures, eye contact, and facial expressions to convey emotions, attitudes, greetings, and cues of status
55 from non-verbal cues
38 from voice quality
7 from the words that are spoken
Non-verbal skills and abilities fall into three general domains, all essential to achieving competence as a non-verbal communicator.
Developing non-verbal communication skills can help you “read” people and their attitudes, not just the words they speak or write, and make you a more effective and confident communicator.
Non-verbal cues are also an important source of feedback that can tell you how successful your communications are—what the mood of a group is, when the group has heard enough, and whether someone in the group would like to speak or raise a question.
Components of Non-Verbal Communication
Proxemics: the amount of space that individuals maintain between each other during a conversation or interaction according to their cultural backgrounds can lead to serious failures in communication explains why invading someone’s personal space
by standing too close or overstepping what is appropriate in a particular social context
can lead to misunderstanding and negative interpersonal perceptions
Chronemics: how people use and interpret time in non-verbal communication
time is a valuable commodity that is uniquely connected to status
how punctual a person is, how long someone is willing to listen or wait for a reply, the pace of speech or tempo of a conversation - are factors that influence the interpretation of that interaction
Paralanguage: acoustic or non-verbal vocal qualities of verbal communication, they can reveal underlying emotions are used to infer personality traits
Vocal Qualities: properties that make each voice unique – intonation, pitch, volume, speed or tempo, rhythm, emphasis or inflection
Vocal Characteristics: sounds that may be recognized as speech but that primarily express emotion – laughing, crying, yelling
Vocal Segregates: pauses or fillers (umm, ahh, you know) that punctuate but get in the way of fluent speech
Body language (kinesics): based on the assumption that all humans—consciously or unconsciously—act and react both verbally and with their bodies.
Non-verbal communication conveyed by gestures, posture, eye contact, and facial expressions
The meaning of these signals and their positive and negative value can shift depending on the receiver’s culture, personality, and experience
Gestures: Various hand and arm movements and specific body positions that express special meanings—often culturally determined. Most gestures convey unconscious messages on the sender’s part, so excessive
gesturing is a distraction that should be kept in check.
Types of gestures:
Emblems: easily translated into unequivocal verbal statements, e.g., waving goodbye or holding a palm outward to signal “stop.”
Illustrators: non-verbal behaviours that accompany speech and depict what is said verbally, e.g., wagging a forefinger at another person in a verbal interaction that involves reprimand or disagreement.
Affect displays: convey emotion, primarily through the face, e.g., a smile.
Regulators: control interaction, e.g., leaning forward to signal entry into a conversation.
Adaptors: body movements that aid in the release of bodily tension due to new or anxious situations, e.g., crossing your arms, running your hand through your hair, or tapping a pencil
Posture: Open body positions (arms uncrossed and away from the body, legs uncrossed, leaning forward) suggest ease, comfort, and agreement
Closed body positions (arms folded across the torso, legs close together or crossed, hands in pockets) may suggest defensiveness, a lack of receptivity, or discomfort
Eye contact: Meaning depends on degree, duration, and context (both interpersonally and culturally)
Direct and purposeful eye contact is a sign of honesty, sincerity, respect, and recognition
Facial expressions: There are six universally recognized facial expressions: happy, sad, afraid, surprised, angry, and disgusted. Most expressions are short-lived, but they can nonetheless indicate personality traits, judgements, attitudes, and emotional states
Image: Personal choices pertaining to such things as clothing and accessories can be communicators of professional identity and corporate culture

Communication Competence
Language competence: knowledge of word choice and language, applicable rules, and what can be achieved through language
Context-sensing competence: the ability to reflect and know what is right in a given situation
Procedural competence: practical knowledge for constructing messages and navigating communication systems
Strategic competence: knowledge of verbal and non-verbal strategies and how to apply them flexibly for peak performance
Digital, computer, and media literacy: knowledge of the use, benefits and limitations of digital communication technologies and how to read and judge digital messages

Internal Communication
Happens within organization between superiors, co-workers, subordinates
provide the means for organizations to detect and solve problems, coordinate activities, foster decision-making and policy-setting, introduce and explain procedures, and persuade employees and managers to accept change
e-mail, memos, reports, conservations, meetings, speeches, in-house newsletters

External Communication
audience outside organization, including customers and other stakeholders
Organizations use external communications to establish themselves in the marketplace, foster good public and media relations, and keep their operations functional, efficient, and productive.
Functions include:
Influence consumer decisions through advertising and promotion
Process orders and collect payment
Answer customer service inquiries and handle complaints
Respond to government agencies
Carry out purchase transactions
E-mail, newsletters, websites, social media, press releases, financial & corporate reports, letters and direct mail

Informal & Formal Channels

Formal network
Establishes hierarchy or lines of communication
letters, memos, reports, proposals
informal network
individuals talking about work
gossiping, chatting, unofficial news


Flow of Information
Upward communication flow: can be enormously beneficial to organizations that take it seriously enough to foster a climate of openness and trust in which opinions and ideas can be voiced freely
Downward communication flow: used to clarify corporate strategies, explain policies, outline job plans, and give performance feedback; sometimes takes on the added purpose of instilling loyalty and improving employee morale
Horizontal communication flow: AKA lateral communication; has a variety of functions: to share information, to solve problems, and to coordinate and harmonize activities so each department knows what the other is doing in order to avoid duplication of initiatives
Communicating in a Global Economy
Global acquisitions, alliances, mergers, international markets, importing, exporting
Employees must overcome differences in language and culture
BELF (Business English as a Lingua Franca): variety of English for specific task-related purposes, learned as a second or even third language worldwide; simple, clear, free of idioms, anchored in serviceable business vocabulary
Lingua franca: a language that is adopted as a common language between speakers whose native languages are different

Diversity in the Workplace

Acceptance of diversity
Internal benefits
External benefits
Multinational workforce
Opportunities
Challenges



Understanding Cultural Differences
Culture: learned, dynamic; influences values, our behaviour, our worldview, approaches to problem-solving, and thinking and reasoning patterns
always the potential for misunderstandings and, consequently, antagonisms to occur across cultural boundaries
Ethnocentrism: intensifies cultural misunderstanding and makes communication difficult
Cross-cultural competence: learned skill; becoming increasingly important in today’s workplaces

Defining Intercultural Communication
Refers to the management of messages between people and groups of different cultural backgrounds
Power distance: the degree to which less powerful members of a group expect and accept that power is distributed
Uncertainty avoidance: a society’s tolerance for ambiguity and comfort level with situations that are new, unstructured, or unknown
Individualism vs. collectivism: the degree to which people are integrated into groups and expected to take care of other
Masculinity vs. femininity: related to the societal distribution of emotional roles and values between genders
Short-term vs. long-term orientation: the degree to which societies are future-focused (long-term orientation) or anchored in the past or present (short-term orientation


High & Low Context Communication Styles
High-context cultures: Cultures in which communication depends not only on the explicit wording of a message but also on the message’s context—status, non-verbal cues, and setting shape meaning
Low-context cultures: Cultures that favour direct communication and depend on explicit verbal and written messages exclusive of context


Planning, Writing, & Revising Business Messages {Chapter 3}
Writing in Context: 4 Key Concepts
Contextual factors: situation, organization’s procedures, audience
Genre & Register: form of writing and level of formality required
Discourse communities: communicators who share a gold or interest in adopting a way of participating in a public discussion
Rhetorical Situation: the circumstances in which individuals communicate


Steps in the Writing Process
Prewriting: assessing the purpose, audience, and most appropriate channel for communication
Organizing & Outlining: mapping out the most strategic and logical arrangement of ideas and details
Drafting: writing the actual message by choosing the precise wording, the style, and organization that delivers information most strategically
Revising: process of reading over and reassessing your draft with a critical eye to ensure its information, wording, sentences, paragraph structure, audience focus, layout and come together a form a clear, concise, and readable message that is right for the context and accomplishes the goals
Editing & Proofreading: last chance for improving the look and sound (tone of the writing)

Prewriting
Process of gathering ideas and establishing the purpose, scope, audience, channel, and other details for a message
Help adapt the message to the situation and tailor it to readers’ needs
Identify the purpose
Estimate the scope of the subject
Consider the audience’s needs
Choose most effective design or layout
Select a communication channel
Collect information
Develop supporting points
Craft a story

Purpose
Reason for communicating and the objectives your message is meant to achieve. Most business communication has only one of two broad purposes: to inform (the most common purpose) or to persuade
Consider what you want your receivers to gain from your message and what their purposes for reading or listening may be (e.g., to receive instruction or notice or to evaluate).
How will they use the information?
Is there a particular result (e.g., a general response, a specific action, a change in attitude, approval for an initiative, or a decision) you are seeking from your audience?
Scope
Depth or breadth of a document’s coverage
Find balance between number of ideas and details
Follow instructions and company or industry standards for detail, length, format, visual elements
Confine message to information you can legally, ethically, access and disclose
Keep message scalability in mind
Use overview or preview statements, headings, to help readers navigate

Audience Profile
Is essential – it informs other decision you make as you create the document, including choice of channel, design, content, word choice and tone
What are their responsibilities and position?
Attitudes, interests, and questions?
What is your experience/relationship with them?
How much do they already know?
What is their likely response?
Are they international?
How will they use the document?

Medium or Channel
Physical means of transmission
Accuracy, speed, cost
Need for permanent record
Detail and importance of message
Privacy
Channel constraints
Size, location of audience
Level of formality
Immediacy of feedback
Richness of medium
Preferences of organization
Design or Layout

Clean lines, white space, no unnecessary elements
Consistent formatting, alignment, line spacing
Wide, even margins
Easy to read fonts
Sufficient contrast between text and background
Useful, well-placed headings
Adequate labels for visuals


Content Generation
Market research: process of gathering information about how people will react to current or proposed products and services
Research data or generate ideas for content
Informal idea-generation strategies
Brainstorming: free association, list ideas as they come to mind
Mapping/clustering: visual form of brainstorming, linking ideas into clusters
Asking questions: 5 W’s & H – who, what, where, when, why, how
Information sources
In-house: archived company records, documents, and files
Digital media: social media, websites, blogs, podcasts, video
Published sources: books, research studies, statistics
Market research: surveys, interviews, focus groups

Supporting Points: Evidence & Examples
Provide details and context the audience needs for your message to succeed.
Major points sometimes cannot stand entirely on their own – explanation
Ex. product may need to be described to help receivers fully understand its features and benefits; new procedures will need to be explained so receivers will know when they go into effect, what to do, and what will change as a result
Numerical, statistical, and factual data: essential to operations and decision-making
Visual and graphical elements: make complex data easier to understand and remember
Appeals to authority: quoting experts builds credibility
Narratives: detailed, chronological accounts of events, conversations, agreements, problems and resolutions, progress
Descriptions: make concepts and artifacts more tangible by providing details about colour, dimensions, parts, materials, and functions

Storytelling & Corporate Narrative

Effective business stories
Brief
Believable
Told from one perspective
Focus on a problem
Give hope or have a positive ending
Preserve confidentiality
Relevant
Say something about who your company is
Basic/Plots help build brand identity
Brief
Believable
Told from one perspective
Focus on a problem
Give hope or have a positive ending
Preserve confidentiality
Relevant
Say something about who your company is


Organizing & Outlining
Organizing and outlining process of arranging information for clarity and impact
Sequential development: method of organization that describes the arrangement of steps in a process
Chronological development: method of organization that describes events in the order in which they occurred.
General-to-specific development: method of organization that begins with general information on a topic followed by specific details.
Cause-and-Effect development: method of organization that links events with the reasons for them.
Outline: framework for a document, showing its divisions and elements

Drafting

Expand your outline
Begin with easiest part
Try to make the intro strong
Don’t work about making it perfect


Overcoming Writer’s Block
Temporary inability to formulate and express one’s thoughts because of a lack of inspiration

Start early
Talk it out
Skip around
Take a break
Practice freewriting
Adopt a positive attitude


Writing Under Pressure
Allocate your time: consider how much time and energy you need to invest in writing your message relative to its purpose and importance
Keep distractions to a minimum: organize your writing area by setting out all the tools and resources you will need
Word-processing software: use the outline feature to brainstorm and organize an outline
Cut and paste to organize alternative ways of presenting information
Plan the structure: select a method of development to keep your information under control
Remember your reader: visualize your reader & explain difficult concepts by relating them to what is familiar and already known to your reader
Go with the flow: start with the section of your document that is easiest to write
Leave refinements for revision: writing doesn’t have to be perfect until it is time to send
Revising, Editing, Proofreading
Revising: process of reviewing and making changes in a draft document—adding, deleting, reorganizing, or substituting— to transform it into a finished document
Editing: process of checking a writing draft to ensure it conforms to standards of good English, style, and accepted business-writing practice
Proofreading: process of checking the nearly final copy of a document for errors and inconsistencies

Work for a printed copy
Read slowly
Consider it from the reader’s perspective
Read multiple time
Read it aloud
Get a peer to edit
Use spell/grammar check
Know the limitations

Revising, Editing, Proofreading

Read and revise for completeness
Did you include all the information you need?
Read and revise for coherence and structure
Do you need to clarify any passages or explanations?
Does the overall organization make sense?
Do you need to move any sentences or paragraphs around?
Edit and proofread language and formatting
Accuracy, conciseness, sentence and paragraph construction
Consistency and format
Readability, word choice, and ethics
Grammar, spelling, punctuation
Typographical errors


Collaborative Writing

Listen actively
Designate a coordinator
Plan ahead
Agree on standards
Make the most of technology
Determine responsibility
Foster co-operation
Harmonize writing styles




Collaborative Writing Tools
Groupware: enables dispersed individuals to collaborate simultaneously through shared web-based interfaces, providing the means to structure, review and develop documents, share files, communicate, and leverage cloud computing
Wikis: server programs that allow registered users to collaboratively post and edit content
Virtual Offices: offices that exist in cyberspace and allow employees to work from any location
Enterprise Collaboration Software: broader, encompassing system that combines groupware platforms, corporation’s intranet, web-based networks for purposes of sharing, processing, and managing files and knowledge


Critiquing Other’s Writing

Build a safe environment

Stick to guidelines
Avoid criticism that could suppress responses
Be an attentive listener
Be sensitive when giving feedback
Feedbacks on content, style, and organization of the writing
Use the same skills to assess writing


Business Style: Word Choice, Conciseness, and Tone {Chapter 4}
Word Choice
Plain Style: values simplicity, directness, clarity
Acceptable to write in everyday language
Saves time and improves clarity
Endorsed by government, businesses, professions, and industries that value comprehensibility

Plain Style
Use common, everyday words
Use reasonable sentence lengths
Use the active voice and phrasal verbs
Place the subject as close as possible to the verb
Use personal pronouns
Use clear, unambiguous language
Word Choice | Step 1 – Use familiar Words
Plain style, avoid:
“ize”, and “ization” words
Use vs. utilize vs. utilization
Words derived from French
Start vs. commerce
Foreign words and phrases
Genuine vs. bona fide
Jargon not related to the field
Buzzwords

Word Choice | Step 2 – Use Fresh & Current Language
Modern and up-to-date, avoid:
Cliches

Going forward
Without further delay
Outside the box
Fiscal house in order
To be perfectly honest
Push the envelope

Slang

Greenback – US $
Schlepp – carry, haul

Text messages abbreviations, emotions, and emojis

Idk – I don’t know
B4 – before

Outdated business expressions

Word Choice | Step 3 – Keep Language Specific, Precise, Functional
Write with precision
Provide details using concrete nouns
Abstract: our company demands loyalty
Concrete: our company demands employee loyalty to corporate policy
Quantify facts and avoid vague statements
Vague: the stock is performing poorly
Specific: shares of grocerynet.com lost 15 of their market value in 2019
Use comparisons and analogies
Avoid ambiguous statements

Word Choice | Step 4: Practise Factual & Ethical Communication
Be reasoned, factual, and moderate in your judgements
Keep personal biases out of your workplace communication, and use only inclusive, non-discriminatory language
Consider the impact your communication has on others as well as yourself
Make sure the actions you endorse are legal and that your communication would reflect well on you if it were disclosed publicly
Consult qualified colleagues
Seek out experienced co-workers to help you navigate ethical minefields and find feasible solutions to the wording of important messages & documents
Avoid libellous language
Common law protects every person against libel – printed character defamation
Harmful and potentially libellous words include drunk, lazy, crazy, crooked, corrupt, incompetent, stupid, drug addict, maniac, and thief
Be timely and accurate in your communication
Avoid unjustified delays in replying or processing information
Retain print or electronic copies of important documents
Avoid untrue, deceptive or misleading statements
Good policy to back up any generalization qualified by entirely, completely, or always with supportive facts and evidence
Know what you can and cannot disclose to certain parties
Familiarize yourself with corporate disclosure practices and confidentiality agreements
Handle your organization’s intellectual property with care
Distinguish between fact and opinion
Let readers know the difference between unsubstantiated belief or conjecture and verifiable fact
Passing off an opinion as a fact is misleading and unethical
Don’t claim authorship of documents you have not written
Consequences of plagiarism are serious
Always acknowledge your sources through notes or citation
Never take credit for ideas that aren’t your own

Achieving Conciseness
Writing should be concise, complete, and polite
Be aware that “time is money”
Shorten as much as possible
Avoid sounding choppy, blunt, or rude
Wordy: please note that you are requested to read and offer your comments on the attached file
Terse: read this and get back to me
Concise and polite: please review and comment on the attached file
Eliminate long lead-ins

Revise noun conversions

Eliminate redundancies

Revise empty phrases

Use strong, precise verbs


Revise wordy prepositional phrases

Eliminate fillers

Reduce that/which/who clauses

Combine sentences; reduce, clauses, phrases


Tone
Implied attitude of the author to the subject and the reader, as reflected by word choice
Sets the mood of the message
Consistent and support content
Ranges from causal to formal
Depends on situation, purpose, channel of communication

Tune in to Word Connections
Cheap, inexpensive, cost-effective, low prices, thrifty, economical
Artificial, faux, synthetic, sham, fake, imitation, mock
Flexible, changeable, fickle, adaptable, compliant, resilient
Denotation: A word’s literal or dictionary definition.
Connotation: A word’s implied or associative meaning, often coloured by emotion
Ex. cheap vs. economical, fake vs. faux

Personal and Impersonal Styles
Personal style
Uses short sentences
Uses personal pronouns
Uses first names and personal references
Use of the active voice throughout
Impersonal style
Uses a mix of sentence lengths, including long sentences
Does not use personal pronouns
Does not use first names or personal references
Includes legitimate use of the passive voice


Be Positive
Make your message positive and reader friendly
Avoid negative wording

Emphasize what the reader can do

Use dependent clauses, passive voice to soften negative facts

Stress Reader Benefits & Relevance
Present meaningful content
Develop a positive you-attitude / we-attitude

Emphasize benefits to the reader


Be Polite
Emotional language can provoke hostile reactions

Excessive politeness may sound cold


Use Inclusive Language
Don’t make discriminatory comments
Use gender-neutral job titles and salutations
Gender based: salesman, spokesman
Gender-neutral: salesperson, spokesperson, sales/ company representative
Use gender-neutral pronouns
Replace the gendered pronoun with an indefinite article
Recast the sentence, making the singular pronoun plural
Use their greatest inclusiveness
Use respectful, accurate terms

Writing with Confidence
Use definite, forward-looking language
Give priority to strong, deliberate verbs, precise nouns, and vivid objectives
Don’t make unnecessary apologies
Apologies for routine requests weaken your perceived authority
Understand when apologies are need (ex. when something has gone wrong) and when they are not
Use strong, assertive phrasing
Deferential and well-intentioned phrases – I hope, and I trust
Other hedging words to watch for include trend – in some ways, perhaps, seems, seemingly, possibly
Be knowledgeable and informative
Know your subject well enough to make it intelligible to the reader
Well presented data and meaningful information help reduce readers’ uncertainty and allow them to take action and make sound decisions
Guard against overconfidence
Too much confidence can make you sound egotistical, affecting your credibility and turning readers off

Business Style: Sentences & Paragraphs {Chapter 5}
Phrases and Clauses
Phrase: group of words with either a subject OR a verb (not both)
Does not express a complete thought so cannot stand by itself as a sentence
Adding phrases to simple sentences makes them more interesting and complex
Clause: group of related words containing a subject and a verb; can be independent or dependent
Subject: word or group of words in a phrase, clause, or sentence that performs the action of a verb
Verb: word or group of words in a phrase, clause, or sentence that describes an action, an occurrence, or a state of being
Modifier: word or group of words that describes or gives more information about another word in a sentence
Independent clause: clause that functions as an independent grammatical unit
Grammatically complete and can stand on their own as sentences
Dependent (or subordinate) clause: clause that cannot function as an independent grammatical unit
Grammatically incomplete and reliant on independent clauses for their meaning
Types of Sentences

Simple Sentences
One independent clause
Straightforward and emphatic
Shorter = more emphasis
Too many can make writing flat and monotonous

Compound Sentences
2 or more independent clauses joined by coordinate junctions

Complex and Compound-Complex Sentences
Complex: dependent + independent clause
Compound/complex: dependant clause + 2 independent clauses

Improving Sentence Variety & Length
Use short and long sentences to vary rhythm
Turn a clause into a prepositional or participial phrase
Turn an independent clause into a relative clause
Covert a describing or defining sentence into an appositive

Phrasing Basic Types of Questions


Improving Sentence Clarity
Avoid broad, vague references using this, that, it

Limit multiple negatives

Put dependent clauses at the beginning of a sentence, not the middle

Writing with Consistency

Number
Person
Verb tense
Voice


Writing Balanced Sentences
Parallelism: Using the same grammatical forms or sentence structures to express equivalent ideas
Use for lists, instructions, consecutive phrases, comparisons

Writing for Emphasis
Use eye-catching mechanical devices
Use style
De-emphasize unpleasant information
Use complex sentences
Embed unpleasant facts
Applying Active & Passive Voice
Use active voice to:
State good news nearly
Emphasize the person who performs the action
Use passive voice to:

De-emphasize negative news
Show tact and sensitivity
Reduce first person pronouns
Maintain consistency and focus


Eliminating Grammar Errors & Awkwardness
Sentence fragment: A portion of a sentence that is punctuated like a complete sentence but does not deliver full meaning
To correct, join a fragment to the grammatical unit that completes it
Run-ons, or fused sentences, combine two or more independent clauses without adequate punctuation (a semicolon) or without a connecting element (a comma followed by a conjunction)
To correct, separate the run-on sentence into two shorter sentences or add correct punctuation and/or a conjunction
Comma splice: error of connecting two independent clauses with only a comma
To correct, add a conjunction or change the comma to a period or semicolon
Misplaced modifier: An incorrectly placed descriptive word or phrase that attaches its meaning illogically to a word it is not meant to modify. To correct, position modifiers as close as possible to the word or words they describe.
Dangling modifier: A phrase that does not clearly modify another word in the sentence. To correct, make sure the subject being described in the introductory phrase comes immediately after the phrase itself. Otherwise, convert the dangling phrase into a dependent clause.
Elliptical construction leaves out words that have already appeared in a sentence because their meaning is inferred from the context. To avoid faulty elliptical constructions, don’t automatically assume that a word appearing elsewhere in the sentence will stand in for the omitted word in the elliptical construction. The implied word has to be exactly the same as the one already used for the construction to be correct.
Mixed-construction sentences pair mismatched elements that do not logically fit together. In a sentence with faulty predication, there is sometimes an illogical pairing of subject and verb
Effective Paragraphs
Paragraph: a group of sentences that develops one main idea
Paragraphs are building blocks of effective writing
For most types of business messages, short paragraphs are usually best because they promise easier reading and retention
Long, overloaded paragraphs form uninviting blocks of text that are visually intimidating
A well-constructed message usually relies on a natural mix of paragraph lengths to match your purpose and support your content
Different types of paragraphs are suited to different types of messages

Topic Sentence
Give the main idea of the paragraph
First sentence in paragraphs that define, describe, classify, or illustrate
Can appear later in paragraphs that deliver
Bad news
Persuasive messages
Comparative messages

Paragraph Development

Paragraph Coherence
Coherence: sentences in a paragraph make sense in sequence and belong together
Know your line of reasoning and order ideas accordingly; e.g., sequence, cause-and-effect
Create flow with word choice techniques:
Carry over a topic from sentence to sentence using synonyms for the sentence subject
Use pronouns (this, that, they, some, they, it) to carry over a thought from one sentence to the next
Transitional expressions: words and phrases that show logical, temporal, and spatial relationships and connect ideas to create coherence
Transitional words and phrases act as helpful signposts, preparing readers for what comes next and guiding them through your train of thought

Proofreading
Take a cooling period so you read with fresh eyes
Read slowly, word for word
Consider reading aloud to hear mistakes
Accuracy of names, facts, and figures
Appropriateness of format
Grammar
Spelling
Punctuation

Memorandums, E-mail and Routine Messages {Chapter 6}
Memorandums
Memo: a specially formatted document sent to readers within an organization

Reminders
Instructions
Records of actions /decisions
Data-gathering tools
Aids to problem-solving

E-mail brings the best of memo style to internal and external communication, using its time-saving format and straightforward approach while eliminating printing
Memos and e-mail are the workhorses of business communication
Indispensable aids to gathering
Sharing
Analyzing information about products
Day-to-day operations
Services
Stakeholders
Personnel
Single topic -> short and simple, to be read quickly -> two part structure (header: date, To, From, Subject, CC(Carbon Copy), BCC (Blind Carbon Copy), Message)

Memo Organization
Consider the facts and issues you must cover and anticipate your readers needs
Positive and neutral messages conveying routine or non-sensitive information can be organized
Must deliver bad news or write persuasively, start with the evidence
Readers are more likely to accept a decision, even a negative one, when they are prepared for it and know it is logical and well justified
Formatting Lists for Memos and E-mail
List: group of three or more logically related items. Ideally, lists in memos and e-mails should be between 3-8 points
The purpose of a list is to order and emphasize important information
Breaking up solid blocks of text
Sequencing events and actions
Making concepts easier to understand, remember, and reference
To be effective, a list must have these features:
Lead-in introducing, explaining, and putting the items that follow in context
Parallel phrasing for every item
Semantic and grammatical continuity between the lead-in and items (every item must read grammatically with the lead-in)
Adequate transition to the sentences that follow after the list
Lists may be horizontal (in-sentence) or vertical
Horizontal:
Minimal emphasis but less intrusive
Up to 3 to 5 items
Vertical:
Visual impact
Max 7 or 8 items
Introduce a list with a strong explanatory lead-in that reads logically and grammatically with each point that follows
Punctuate the lead-in with a colon if it is a complete sentence
Use no punctuation if the lead-in depends on the point that follows to complete its meaning
Use numbers or letters to indicate chronological sequence or importance
Numbers are useful for indicating priority

Paper Memo vs. E-mail
When legality, confidentiality, or document integrity (preserving the layout or formatting features that e-mail systems cannot accommodate) are primary concerns, a hard-copy memo is preferable to e-mail

E-mail
Advantages:
Quick production and transmission
Fosters collaboration
Not public
Disadvantages:
Include compromising information
Forwarded easily
Easy access can extend workday to 24hrs

General E-mail Guidelines
Keep it brief
Short message is most likely to be read fully
Long messages may end up being skimmed, marked to be read later, or simply forgotten
Consider using attachments or breaking up longer text (e.g., with headings) to visually highlight key messages
Include only as much information as recipients need to take action and make decisions
Remember that e-mail is not your only option
Strive for a balance between technology and human contact
Don’t use e-mail simply to avoid face-to-face contact, especially if you wish only to distance yourself from conflicts, arguments, or bad news
Match the situation to the correct communication channel
Compose crucial messages offline
Review messages, reduces the chance that they will be lost after technical issues
Follow organizational rules for e-mail
Some companies have standardized procedures for e-mail; some have only unwritten or loosely applied guidelines
If rules haven’t been established, allow the most effective messages you receive to guide you
Don’t use company e-mail for personal communication
Your organization’s resources shouldn’t be used to shop or send personal photos or personal messages
Though some companies allow their employees “reasonable personal use” of e-mail, others prohibit it
Sending personal e-mails and using the Internet for matters unrelated to business is risky and may have professional repercussions for you
Aim for a balance of speed and accuracy
E-mail readers are generally more tolerant of writing errors, but there are limits to allowances for incorrect spelling, poor grammar, and misused punctuation
Ensure that your spell-check software is set to the correct language, and review your messages to catch errors in spelling, grammar, and punctuation before you hit “Send.”
Give important, non-routine e-mails with many recipients close and careful reading, and employ the same kinds of strategic planning and range of writing skills as you would for non-electronic documents
Involves the rapid exchange of information, let your readers’ needs be your guide, but don’t double or triple your composition time by putting every single word under the microscope.
Keep your messages professional
Only use emoticons and emojis in cases where you are mimicking the style of the person you’re communicating with, and only if the situation and your audience’s expectations truly call for them
State your business plainly in standard English. Use please and thank you for the sake of politeness, and adjust your tone if you want to sound friendlier
Use your e-mail system’s settings to add an electronic signature containing your name, professional title, and, if you like, other contact information or even a photo
Understand that e-mail is not guaranteed to be private
Even deleted e-mail can be retrieved, providing a permanent record of actions and decisions. It can be saved, archived, forwarded, and even used as legal evidence.
Some companies monitor employee e-mail.
Don’t write anything in an e-mail that you wouldn’t want published in the company newsletter
Don’t “write angry”
Avoid electronic aggression and flaming—firing back and venting anger via e-mail
Communicate contentious matters and sensitive issues through other channels, preferably ones with visual or tonal cues
If you have to deal with an angry e-mail, give yourself enough time to cool down and consider your response before you reply
Don’t send unnecessary messages
Don’t send trivial messages or ones that say merely “thank you” or “you’re welcome.” Respect your fellow e-mail users by putting a stop to time-wasting messages
With some exceptions, for example when a message just can’t wait, avoid sending e-mail late in the day or on weekends if it means the receiver’s time will be infringed upon without justification
Review the distribution list before sending an e-mail to ensure that it has been properly updated and that your message will reach only those recipients to whom it is relevant
Protect yourself and your company
Be aware of ownership and copyright issues and safeguard your organization’s intellectual property. Add a copyright symbol (©) to all corporate material intended for Internet posting
Keep your password and user ID confidential to ensure secure applications aren’t compromised
Fight spam by using anti-spam software that blocks unwanted messages and by not posting your e-mail address on web pages, where it can be easily copied by spammers
Exercise caution in opening any file attachment you suspect has been corrupted

Reading and Processing Income Messages
Schedule time for e-mail
Clean inbox regularly
Scan new messages in inbox
File your messages
Use filters and anti-spam software

Formatting and Writing E-mail
Type the e-mail address correctly
Rely on your electronic address book if you routinely leave out or mistype characters
Determine distribution and mailing lists beforehand so you can tailor messages to recipients’ specific needs
Add “CC” (copy feature) and “BCC” (blind copy feature) addresses accordingly.
Send copies only to people who have a legitimate need for your information and keep some e-mail addresses anonymous if recipients are likely to object to their circulation.
Compose an action-specific subject line.
Labels such as “URGENT” can be used from time to time when companies approve of them.
Be specific—for example, instead of “New Statement” (too general) write “Revised Quality Assurance Statement.”
If an action is needed, use a verb (e.g., “Complete Attached Survey”).
Revise reply subject lines when they no longer reflect the content of the message.
E-mails without subject lines are most likely to be deleted without being read.
Design messages for clarity and readability.
Apply reader-friendly formatting to make your e-mail quickly scannable.
Use a standard, professional font (e.g., Arial, Calibri).
Use headings, boldface, lists, and other formatting techniques to break up larger blocks of text into manageable segments.
Do not write messages in all caps.
Some platforms don’t show bold, italics, or underlining. In such cases, use asterisks (*) around a word to show italics and underscores (_) to show underlining.
Keep paragraphs and sentences short.
Keep text shorter than in regular word-processing documents.
Use double-spaced paragraph breaks for emphasis and readability.
Overall: use appropriate greetings, use lists where appropriate, include an automatic signature, get to the point, sign off with a complimentary close, follow rules for attachments

E-mail Style and Tone
Reply as promptly as possible
Modify your distribution list
Don’t automatically include the sender’s original message with your reply
Conversational style
Personal pronouns
Contractions
Active voice
Careful choice of tone
Re-read message before sending to avoid misunderstandings
Avoid indiscriminately forwarding e-mails
Make provision for absences from the office
Protect and respect authorship

Positive & Informative Messages
Informative memo: a brief message conveying information to which the reader will react neutrally
Announcements, policies, guidelines, instructions, procedures
Clear subject line
Direct, action-specific opening
Clear explanation of details
Follow up instructions
Reader centered close


Request Memos and E-mail
Request Memo: a message that asks the reader to perform a routine action
Requests:
Open with polite command or direct question
Outline multiple requests in a numbered or bulleted list
Highlight reader benefits
Describe the reason for the request
Include end dates

Reply Memos and E-mail
Open with the most important element
Organize responses
According to order of original requests
Using boldface or headings
Close by summing up and offering further assistance
Goodwill E-mails
Message that enhances the value of a business beyond its tangible assets by creating a bond of friendship and establishing trust and mutual understanding between the writer and the recipient.
Congratulatory and thank-you messages
Identify the situation
Provide reader-focused details
Close with a friendly, forward-looking remark
Avoid clichés

Follow-up Message
Provides a record of a meeting, including its time, place, purpose, and any agreements that may have been made
Keep a detailed record of a meeting or conversation
List participants
Outline basic facts, agreements, directives, and decisions
Provide written confirmation of oral agreements
Include opportunities for clarification and feedback

Instant Messaging
Exchange of messages over the Internet between two or more users who are online simultaneously
Combines features of synchronous, real-time communication (face-to-face meetings, telephone calls) with traits more commonly identified with e-mail.
Guidelines

Understand when IM is appropriate
Limit abbreviations
Use sentence capitalization
Keep conversations to a few people
Inform people about your availability
Use “away” or “busy” notices
Be specific
Keep message brief
Use clear, consistent wording
Be cautious
Not appropriate with groups and managers



Routine & Goodwill Messages {Chapter 7}
Direct Writing Plan
3-part structure ~ can be used for most routine correspondence, including direct-approach, request, and response messages, use direct-approach message for good news or informative/routine messages, be careful - directness may seem rude in high-context cultures
Opening

Reveal purpose in first sentence
Answers reader’s most important questions
States good news
Makes direct, specific request
Provides most important information

Middle
Contains details, explanations, further questions
May include bulleted or numbered lists
Closing

Contact information
Call to action
Deadlines/timelines
Goodwill or appreciation


Requests
Put the main idea first: Embedded requests are easy to overlook. State exactly what you want—vague requests encourage vague responses.
Give a reason for the request or state its benefit: Unless you can incorporate this information into the opening paragraph in one sentence or less, put it in the second paragraph.
Introduce multiple requests or questions with a summary statement: should be polite and draw the reader’s attention to the questions that follow (Please answer the following questions about your executive search services)
Anticipate required details: Include information that the reader will need in order to process or act on your request.
Strike a tone that is right for your reader: Be firm but respectful.
Keep minor points to a minimum: Unnecessary information blunts the impact of your request.
Use a layout that focuses attention on your request. Incorporate bulleted or numbered lists, surround specifics with white space, and boldface or italicize key points for emphasis.
Close in a courteous and efficient way: Focus on the action you want the reader to take and use positive language to communicate goodwill and show appreciation.

Requests for Information or Action
Information request: message that asks for or seeks information
Action request: message that ask a recipient to do or avoid doing something
Use a firm yet polite tone
Pose open-ended questions
Explain why the information is needed – outline benefits to reader
Recap what you need from the reader in the conclusion – be specific, include a deadline

Order Requests
Use when automated ordering is not an option
Supply all info needed for order to be fulfilled
Authorize the purchase
Specify preferred shipping method
Specify payment method
Itemize requested merchandise
Include billing and delivery addresses
Close with special instructions and thanks

Claim Letters
Demand or request for something ~ often a replacement or a refund - due
Filing means writing as a customer about something that has gone wrong merchandise has turned out to be faulty, goods haven’t been delivered, a delivery has contained the wrong merchandise, a billing error has been made, or the service you received has been unsatisfactory
Use a direct approach
Make your request for an adjustment
refund, replacement, correction, or apology
Explain the issue logically and objectively
include details and documentation
End positively and pleasantly
restate the action requested
include a deadline

Reponses
Most effective when it is prompt, informative, and gets to the point
routine response provides focused details of a decision, an answer, or an action so readers can make informed decisions, follow through, or know what happens next

Information Responses
A response to an information request (or inquiry) should supply the requested information first without the need for an introduction
May require you to interpret hard-to-grasp facts and statistics and to anticipate questions your readers still might have once their original inquiries are answered
Personalized Form Letters
Standardized letter that can be sent to different recipients and that has adjustable fields for including the recipient’s name, address, and perhaps other information, all of which may be stored in a database and merged with the form letter
Delivers routine information
Order acknowledgements, action request, answers to FAQ

Order Acknowledgements
Informative letter that confirms the details of a merchandise purchase and shipment.
Ability to order online, by telephone, or by e-mail has increased expectations for prompt replies to requests for goods and services.
Effective order acknowledgement is upbeat, efficient, and concise

Message Confirming Contracts & Agreements
Goal of a confirmation message is to confirm and explain details already established in a related document or to put an oral agreement into writing
Summarizes and clarifies details of an agreement, contract, transaction, decision or future event
Shows appreciation to the reader for agreeing to participate
Specifies and delegates tasks
Provides clear wording to allow the reader to point any discrepancies in understanding
Ensures both parties understand the details
Provides a written record

Claim Adjustment
A response to a claim letter telling the customer what a company intends to do to correct the problem
Purpose of this is:
Inform a customer that his/her claim has been successful
Show how you intend to rectify the problem or resolve the complaint
Repair customer relations, rebuild goodwill, and restore confidence
Claim adjustment structure
Grant the adjustment
Explain how you will make the adjustment
Take legal issues and liability into consideration
Thank the reader for the feedback
Close pleasantly
Express confidence in a continued business relationship
Goodwill Messages
Message that enhances the value of a business beyond its tangible assets by creating a bond of friendship and establishing trust and mutual understanding between the writer and recipient.
Show that you are thinking of the reader and care about more than just your profit margin
Personal: specific details
Prompt: send them immediately for hearing the news
Spontaneous, short & sincere: Avoid clichéés, imagine what your reader would like to hear
Thank-you Letters
Thank the reader for their contribution
Include a few details
State plainly what the favour means to you
Close warmly

Letters of Congratulations
Be genuine, not patronizing
Reflect on the achievement
Share the reader’s happiness

Letter of Sympathy
Write it by hand
Keep it short
Send it as soon as possible
Opening
Acknowledge the loss
Middle
Recall the deceased’s positive qualities
Closing
Offer assistance

Announcements
Informative letters: explanatory letters that let readers know what something is or keep them up to date on changing policies, personnel, or circumstances; include announcements, cover or transmittal letters, and instructional letters/memos

Cover or Transmittal Letters
Informative letter that accompanies materials sent from one person to another explaining why those materials are being sent
Accompanies something you are sending to someone inside or outside your organization—a report, proposal, or shipment of materials.
Identifies what is being sent and the reason for sending it
Serves as a permanent record of the exchange of goods or information
More important your document or material is, the more essential it is to type a transmittal letter to accompany it
Instructional Letters/Memos
Clear and accurate
Precise
Complete
User-friendly
Action-oriented
Writing instructional letters/memos:
Be sure you understand the procedure
Assess the audience’s familiarity with the procedure
Explain the purpose of the procedure
Organize your information in short, numbered steps
Use headings to divide long lists of steps into shorter sections
Give warnings where mistakes can lead to damage or injury
Think about whether you must persuade readers to follow instructions
Structure – sample directive/instructional message ~ email
Introduction
Explain the purpose of the procedure
List of equipment
Description of steps
Number the steps and organize them chronologically
Add headings to divide long lists into shorter sections
Give warnings where necessary
Include visuals
Describe desired outcome
Conclusion
Letter Balance & Placement
Centred vertically & horizontally on the page
1 or 1 ½ inch margins
Ragged right margins – don’t justify
Well-prepared letters are
Accurately typed
Standardized formats
Well-proportioned
Balanced on the page

Letter Styles & Layouts
Full block
All parts aligned at left margin
Modified block
Return address, date, and complimentary close to the right of the center
Simplified
Left alignment, but no salutation or complimentary close

Letter Elements
Standard: heading/return address, dateline, inside address, salutation, message, complimentary close, signature block
Optional: delivery/confidential notation, reference line, attention line, subject line, identification initials, enclosure notation, copy notation, postscript, continuation page heading
Letterhead/return address
Do not include your name
Dateline
Around line 13
Month day, year format
Spell out the full month name
No abbreviations (Feb., Sept.) or ordinals (3rd, 5th)
Delivery/confidential notation
Capital letters
Two lines above inside address
Inside address (receiver’s address)
Name, including title and position
Company name
Street address
City, province, and postal code
Attention line, reference line or subject line (optional)
Two lines above or below salutation
Often in all caps
Salutation
Dear ____:
Use Ms. as the title for all female readers
End salutation with a colon in formal business letters
Body
Begins two lines below salutation
Single space text with a space between paragraphs
Do not indent paragraphs
Centre body vertically
Complimentary close
Two lines below last line of the letter
Only first letter is capitalized
Normally followed by a comma
Signature block
Handwritten signature of the author
Printed name of the author
Title of the author
Identification initials (optional)
Capitalized initials show who composed the letter
Small initials show who typed it
Only use if someone who is not the author typed it
Enclosure notation (optional)
Indicates number of attached documents
Copy notation (optional)
Shows who else received a copy of the letter

Addressing Envelopes
Return address in upper left corner
Municipality, province or territory and postal code appears on the same line
Postal code printed in uppercase
First three elements of postal code separated by one space
International letters use state instead of province and full name of country on separate line at end of address block
Place stamp on right-hand corner

Delivering Unfavourable News {Chapter 8}
Goals of Negative Messages
Negative message: message that communicates negative information that may upset or disappoint the reader
Bad news is unavoidable
Turning down applicant, denying claim
Even confident writers will try to distance themselves from the news
Recipients may be defensive, disappointed, shocked, or angry
Strong emotions can lead to loss of goodwill and future business
Poorly written refusals can cause the reader to
Stop reading
Experience psychological reactance
It’s important for communications to be handled with tact

Do not trivialize
Do not exaggerate
Do not be too blunt
Do not use thoughtless language


Tone in Bad News Messages
A tactful, neutral tone tailored to the situation puts readers in a receptive frame of mind and lowers their psychological resistance to a refusal
Avoid phrasing that is harsh, defensive, and accusatory, which can intensify readers’ feelings of anger and inadequacy

Don’t plead
No name calling
Beware of mixed messages

Avoid statements that assume reader’s acceptance

Avoid weak/timid language
Avoid writer-focused language

Use sympathetic language carefully
Stick to facts & avoid jargon
Tone in Bad News Messages
Negative responses: simply reply with the original subject line
Choose the right subject line for the message:
Positive subject lines
Highlight solutions in problem-oriented messages
Persuade reader of benefits
Neutral subject lines
Signal the topic without referring to the bad news
Use in memos to peers, subordinates, especially when bad news is minor or expected
Negative subject lines
Command attention for serious internal problems or urgent messages
Alert readers to problems for which they are not at fault

Organizing Bad News Messages
Besides audience, also consider best channel to deliver news clearly and limit the impact on the professional relationship
In one research study, participants judged e-mail to be more comprehensible, while they viewed voicemail as more persuasive and better for maintaining a personal customer relationship
2 structures for negative messages – direct and indirect
Choose based on audience analysis
How well do you know the reader?
What is the reader’s position relative to yours?
How much information can legally, ethically you disclose?
How prepared is the reader for bad news?
How much resistance do you anticipate?
How badly will the news affect the reader?
Using the Indirect Approach
More traditional approach
Often allows greater tact and diplomacy
Use an indirect approach when
You don’t know the reader well
News isn’t anticipated by the reader
Indirect writing plan for bad news
Opening: begin with a buffer
Middle Explanation: provide a solid, reasonable explanation
Middle State the Bad News: phrase it to minimize impact and, if possible, offer an alternative
Closing: end with a goodwill statement

Bad News Buffers
Buffer: meaningful, neutral statement (1-3 sentences) that cushions the shock of bad news
Particularly useful in messages intended for superiors, customers, or job applicants
Can be an expression of agreement, appreciation, or general principle or a chronology of past communications
Avoid connotatively negative language (e.g., no, not, cannot, refuse, deny, unfortunately, regrettably, and the prefixes un- and non-).
Never misleads the reader into thinking that positive news will follow
Neutral statement to establish rapport
Depending on context, it could be

Expression of appreciation
Good or neutral news
General principle or fact
Recap of past communication
Statement of agreement or common ground
Apology or statement
Compliment

Explaining the Bad News
Stick to the facts and avoid editorializing.
Focus on strongest reason(s) for saying no
Be careful not to divulge confidential, legally sensitive information that may be damaging to you or your company
Avoid expressing a personal opinion
Goal is to clarify your or the company’s decision briefly and tactfully
Refer to company policy but don’t hide behind it
Avoid mechanically restating company policy to justify your decision—unless you want to distance yourself from negative information by using an official tone
Tactfully point to the reason why the policy is reasonable, fair, or beneficial
Use positive or neutral words
Avoid words that are known to create resistance: impossible, unable, unacceptable, unwise, unwilling, difficulty, inconvenience, unwarranted, unreasonable
Explanation should sound humane, transparent, and helpful

Revealing the Bad News
Put the bad news in a dependent clause
De-emphasize what they convey because of their grammatical incompleteness
Readers are less likely to linger over clauses beginning with although, as, because, if, since, while, or whereas
Suggest a compromise or an alternative
Readers like solutions
Emphasize what you or your company can do and show you are focused on solving the problem
Provide enough information for the reader to be able to act on the suggestion
Use the passive voice
Allow you to describe an action without identifying who performed it
Facts stand out / personalities and conflicts fade into the background
Use long sentences rather than short ones
Sentence containing more than 15 words
Long sentences tend to de-emphasize content
Use positive language
Avoid words and phrases that readers may perceive as antagonistic: we must refuse/reject/deny your request/disappoint you
Avoid spotlighting the bad news
Embed in the middle of a sentence or paragraph where it is less noticeable
Combine it with an explanation or alternative
Imply the refusal
Explanation must be clear and thorough to work

Goodwill Closing
Part of a message that draws attention away from the bad news and toward a positive and continuing relationship with the reader
Do offer your good wishes to the reader
Don’t invite further correspondence unless you truly want it
Don’t take credit for providing help if you haven’t given any
Don’t repeat the bad news/past problems
Don’t apologize for saying no

bad

Apologies in Bad News Messages
Apologies can:
restore dignity and a sense of justice
express fairness
provide an explanation
give assurance the same thing won’t happen again
Elements of an apology:
acknowledgement of the offence
explanation of contributing factors
show of remorse
offer of repair or restitution
commitment to reform
Unnecessary apologies—apologizing for the sake of apologizing—weaken your perceived authority and erode confidence in your decisions
Unnecessary apology: I am so sorry to have to tell you that our Get It Fresh or It’s Free policy does not apply to reduced-for-quick-sale items
Positive explanation: To guarantee our customers a high standard of food quality and freshness, our Get It Fresh or It’s Free policy applies only to regularly priced or nationally advertised sale item.
Types of Bad News Messages

Refusing requests
Refusing claims
Refusing Credit
Turning down job applicants
Announcing bad news to employees
Declining invitations

Refusing Request for Information, Action & Favours
Indirect approach: use it when refusing people outside of your organization
Direct approach: use it when you know the reader well or politeness is not required

Buffer the opening
Give reasons
Soften the bad news
Offer an alternative
Renew goodwill


Refusing Claims
Not all claims are valid or reasonable
Some are the result of an honest mistake or misinformation on the part of the claimant
A rare few are fraudulent
Using the indirect approach allows you the tact to let the reader down gently, and explanation shows that you gave it consideration
Dual purpose of a claim response, even a negative one, is to put the matter to rest while retaining the goodwill and patronage of current customers


Refusing Credit
Goal is to draft a sensitive, respectful refusal that says no without criticizing applicants for their low cash reserves, debts, or poor credit records—and without raising false expectations of future credit
Sometimes best to give no reason for the denial but to simply refer the applicant to the credit agency on whose information the decision is based
Use a lawyer-reviewed form later if possible
Can cause hard feelings with consequences for future business
Keep tone courteous and respectful
Be discreet about third-party information
Use the passive voice

Turning Down Job Applicants

Indirect approach is widely preferred
Personal letter for interviewed candidates
Form letter for other applicants
Be courteous and respectful
Leave applicant’s self-esteem intact
Open by cushioning the refusal
Thank applicant
Can comment on quality of applications
Give reasons for the company’s selection if possible
Quickly move on to the bad news
Close gently with encouragement


Announcing Bad News to Employees
May use direct or indirect structure
Encourage acceptance and motivate compliance
Explain why the change is being made
Clarify how the news affects employees
Before writing, ask
Why has the decision forcing the announcement of bad news been made?
What is the purpose of the change?
How does the bad news affect employees?
Examples include announcements of setbacks and reminder of unpopular polices or altered procedures
Lost contracts, rising benefit costs, declining profits, and public relations crises
Reduced benefits, cutbacks, and reductions in raises
Have the potential to affect employee morale and performance

Declining Invitation
Invitations are an integral part of business life—offer valuable opportunities to network, learn, and promote your organization
how you communicate your regrets depends on how well you know the reader and how much your attendance is expected
When declining an important client or superior, you must ensure your refusal won’t seem like a personal rebuff; adopt a warm tone and focus on something positive:
Express appreciation or issue a compliment
Express regret and explain
Propose an alternative
Renew goodwill


Responding to Negative Message on Social Media Platforms
Complaints on social media can have costly and long-lasting consequences
Responses to negative reviews (RNRs) play an important role in handling dissatisfied customers and recovering clients, maintaining trust and loyalty, achieving service recovery, and protecting a brand and company image
RNRs are fairly flexible in terms of content but the steps of acknowledging feedback, dealing with the complaint, and concluding the message are most essential
Acknowledge feedback and express thanks or regret
Keep in mind brand positioning aimed at building and maintaining a positive image by referring to company commitment or standards
Deal with the complaint—show a willingness to handle it, explain the causes, report an investigation result, or take responsibility with an apology—to build credibility and regain trust
Be strategic and swift in responding
Avoid using defensive, threatening, or coercive language
Discreetly move the conversation to a less public forum
Persuasive Messages {Chapter 9}
Writing Persuasively
Persuasion: the process of gradually influencing attitudes and behaviours and motivating the audience to act
Influence audience attitudes, beliefs, and behaviours
Respectfully make readers want to do something by using
Reasonable propositions
Well-framed arguments
Vivid supporting evidence
Relatable message based on credibility and rapport
Valuable skills for sales, group work, job application, and when asking for favours or donation

Preparing to Write Persuasively
Know your purpose and what you want your reader to do: Make your request reasonable and beneficial to the reader.
Understand what motivates your reader: Analyze your audience’s goals and needs and tap into them. How does your pitch for a product, service, or action answer that need in benefitting the reader by saving them money, solving a problem, or helping them achieve an objective?
Consider design and layout: Appearance often forms opinion before message is read. Proper proportioning, typography, and use of white space—will make your message attractive and professional.
Be positive and accurate: Use a sincere, confident tone and reader-centred language.
Anticipate objections and plan how to deal with them: Collect data that will help you overcome resistance and allow readers to follow up easily
Figure 9.1: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. Organizational psychologist Abraham Maslow defined these motivating factors in terms of an ascending hierarchy of needs, from the most basic at the bottom to the abstract at the top. Tapping into one of these motivational needs will make your message more persuasive.
When writing persuasively, it’s important to analyze your audience in terms of its goals and needs
Persuasion is necessary whenever you expect resistance or preference for the status quo. Overcoming resistance depends on swaying readers in three processes of influence:
Compliance (through rewards/benefits or punishments)
Identification (commonality)
Internalization (affirmation of goals and values)
Overcoming resistance is best done in non-threatening ways (through rewards rather than punishments)
Try to frame your persuasive request as a win–win proposition.
A concession statement can let you acknowledge objections in a non-judgmental way before you offer a rebuttal that logically supports a needed action
Although the new system may cause some disruptions at first, it will speed processing dramatically and give us access to all relevant company-wide databases
Persuasive Appeals
Appeal: An attempt to persuade
Because not all audiences or persuasive tasks are alike, messages that must convince can rely on single or combined appeals.
Appeal to reason: business decisions must be logical and well-justified
Effective reasoning based on evidence in the form of non-numerical facts, expert opinions, statistics, examples, or analogies allow you to show the merits of your claim
Clear, logical development in the way these facts are presented encourages readers to agree with your conclusion and support the action you propose
Appeal to emotion: Tapping into emotions such as pride, hope, honour, pleasure, respect, and fear is a leading strategy and catalyst in marketing, sales, and leadership communication that helps people connect with brands through positive associations and motivates them to act and adapt in times of change
If it is excessive or not handled skillfully, however, it can backfire.
Readers may see it as inauthentic, overhyped, and manipulative, especially if they believe they are being prevented from considering your argument logically or the emotions you are trying to evoke don’t resonate with them for cultural or other reasons.
Examples:
1. A memo that asks for safer working conditions may play on a sense of responsibility and pride in a company’s reputation (Our company has always maintained a level of safety above industry standards).
2. The final letter in a series of collection letters or payment-past-due notices may arouse fear at the consequences of not paying immediately (If we do not receive payment immediately, we will be forced to turn your account over to an attorney for collection. Such action will damage your previously good credit rating).
Appeal to ethics: to work, you must establish credibility; avoid sarcasm and hostility, and keep your focus on reader benefits, not on what you have to gain personally
Figure 9.2 Four Key Sources of Credibility: a company’s ability to build and maintain credibility can help it attract, retain, and persuade loyal customers.

AIDA – Strategy for Persuasive Messages
Attention: captures attention, creates awareness, makes a sales proposition, prompts audience to read on (OPENING)

Summary of problem
Unexpected statement
Reader benefit
Compliment
Related facts
Stimulating question

Interest: describes central selling points, focuses not on features of product/service but on benefits relevant to the reader’s needs (BODY)

Facts, figures
Expert opinions
Examples
Specific details
Direct benefits
Indirect benefits

Desire: reduces resistance, reassures the reader, elicits the desire for ownership, motivates action (BODY)

Reduce resistance
Anticipate objections
Offer counterarguments
Use “what if” scenarios
Demonstrate competence
Show value of proposal

Action: offers an incentive or gift, limits the offer, sets a deadline, makes it easy for the reader to respond, closes the sale (CLOSING)

Describe specific request
Sound confident
Make action easy to take
Offer incentive or gift
Don’t provide excuses
Repeat main benefits

Four-part AIDA Strategy
Gain the audience’s attention by opening with:

Problem description
Unexpected statement
Reader benefit
Compliment
Related facts
Stimulating question

Build audience interest by using:

Facts, figures
Expert opinions
Examples
Specific details
Direct benefits
Indirect benefits

Elicit desire by doing:

Reduce resistance
Anticipate objections
Counterarguments
Use what if scenarios

Prompt action by doing:

Specific request
Sound confident

Suggest specific and easy-to-follow action
Suggest a deadline and give a reason for the date
Build Interest
Showing how your request can benefit the audience directly or indirectly is a key factor in persuasion
Establish your credibility, if necessary, by explaining your background and expertise
Tie facts to direct benefits (e.g., a tax write-off for a charitable contribution)
Tie facts to indirect benefits (e.g., feeling good about helping someone with your donation)

Create Desire
Emphasize benefits
Avoid bringing up objections that my never have occurred to the receiver
Establish credibility and expertise
Ensure your request is reasonable and that you are believable
Refer to your credentials and demonstrate your competence

Indirect Writing Plan for Persuasive Messages
Obtain interest

Define a problem
Identify common ground
Cite reader benefits
Ask a pertinent question
State a related fact

Prove your proposal can benefit the reader

Explain how it meets a particular need
Focus on direct or indirect benefits
Give readers the information they need
Deal with any objections

Ask for action and link it to reader benefits
End with a specific and confident request
Link to incentives that motivate readers to act immediately
Consider using a set deadline
An indirect persuasive strategy breaks down resistance and prepares readers for a request or proposal that could easily fail if made directly.
A gradual approach allows you to earn trust and show readers how they will benefit from what you’re asking them to do.
4 main types of messages use an indirect writing plan:
Favour and action requests
Persuasive memos
Managing change and motivating performance
Claim requests / collection letters

Favour & Action Requests
Use an indirect strategy for invitations, requests, for volunteers & any kind of unpaid help
Gain favourable attention
Use a compliment or fact
Give the reader a reason to accept
Chance to assume leadership role or show talents
Chance to network
Chance to help others
Ask for action
End with confidence and courtesy
Provide contact information
Persuasive Memos
A persuasive memo communicates facts and benefits before it pushes for action, so there is less chance the initiative it endorses will be misunderstood or rejected prematurely.
The memo ultimately succeeds when it puts words and ideas into action to overcome resistance and wins support for a well-defined and workable solution to a problem.
Problem-solution strategy steps:
Summarize the problem
Explain how the problem can be solved
Describe benefits
Use evidence, facts and figures
Minimize resistance
Acknowledge counterarguments
Request specific action
Set a deadline
Offer incentives

Persuasion for Managing Change & Motivating Performance
Organizations are often confronted by change: change they actively seek and change that is imposed on them that may not come easily.
Internal corporate communication has four goals:
encouraging internal relations and commitment
promoting a positive sense of belonging
developing employees’ awareness of change
the need to evolve
The best messages combine information and motivational goals and use:
Direction-giving and uncertainty-reducing language to clarify goals and duties
Empathetic language that encourages and inspires the workforce and shows gratitude
Meaning-making language outlining norms and expectations (strategic storytelling and references to teams)

Claim Requests
Indirect writing plan is useful for claims that may be judged questionable—expired warranties, terms of a contract contravened—to prove the legitimacy of your claim with a clear line of reasoning before you can ask for an adjustment.
A weak or questionable claim can usually be strengthened with expressions of confidence in a company’s integrity and fairness and appeals to its pride in its products and reputation.
Steps to follow:
Gain positive attention: Open with a compliment, a point of shared interest, a review of action taken to solve the problem, or your original reason (if favourable) for buying the product or service.
Prove your claim is valid: Your line of reasoning should lead the reader to conclude that responsibility rests with his or her company, not with you. Describe the problem in a calm and credible way; give a chronology of what happened and what you have done to resolve the problem; provide supporting data to help the reader assess the situation such as order numbers, delivery dates, method of shipment, servicing locations, and descriptions of the items in question; take steps to defend yourself against possible blame; attach supporting documents such as receipts.
Ask for a specific action: State how the claim can be resolved and what you expect the company to do (make a refund, offer a replacement, or apologize). End positively, expressing confidence in the company’s ethical standards
Collection Letters
Collection letters: A series of increasingly persuasive appeals to a customer asking for payment for goods and services already received
Usually, the longer a bill remains unpaid, the more demanding and urgent the collection letters become.
The forcefulness of a collection demand also depends on the relationship between the creditor and the debtor
(1) Reminder letter: A collection letter that informs a customer in a friendly way that a payment has not been received
Friendly tone
Assumes the reader has forgotten to pay
(2) Inquiry letter: A collection letter that attempts to determine the circumstances that are preventing payment and asks for payment
Firmer & more direct than reminder
Positive appeal to fairness, reputation, sympathy, self-interest
(3) Demand letter A collection letter that makes a firm and unequivocal request for immediate payment and attempts to convince the debtor to pay the bill within a stated time by raising the possibility of legal action
Ultimatum warns of penalties for non-payment, refers to collection letters
Courteous but firm tone

Sales Messagers
A message that promotes a product, service, or business and seeks prospective customers or additional sales
Rich in details that make the reader want to purchase the product or service
Can be individual letters/emails or form letters/emails
Successful sales messages
Rely on market research to target the needs, preferences, and demographics of targeted groups
Use appropriate persuasive appeals and incentives to create desire for products and services
Provide product information, indicate benefits to buyer, and build confidence in product’s value and performance
Avoid hard-sell pitches, empty hype, and deceptive product claims that turn readers off
Aim is to translate interest into sales and an ongoing relationship of trust with customers
Analyzing the Product & Audience
An effective sales message delivers specific facts to a specific audience. Careful planning is essential
Become an expert on the product or service
Keep the problem it solves top of mind
Learn as much as possible about the target audience
Aim for an ethical sales pitch
Pay attention to timing, presentation, personalization, tone

Writing Plan for Sales Letters
Gain attention with a:
Thought-provoking fact or statement (Over 20,000 vehicles are stolen every year in this city.)
Good news (You’re pre-approved for the Ultra Platinum Card. This exciting credit card is yours to help you achieve the best in life.)
Special offer or bargain (The cheque below is yours to cash toward your Ultra Card Registry service! It’s a special way to introduce you to the protection and peace of mind that Ultra has provided to Canadians for over 20 years.)
Product feature (Ultra is the first platinum card that allows you up to 15 days of out-of-province travel medical insurance—absolutely free!)
Question (Have you ever wondered if you paid too much for an all-inclusive resort vacation?)
Story (I am pleased to write to you today to tell you an alumni success story about Janet and Steve, who may not be very different from you. They work hard and invest their money wisely to build a bright future for their family. Although they know they can’t predict the future, they have protected it by investing in the Alumni Term Life Insurance Plan. With low rates for alumni, they protect themselves, their family, and everything they have worked so hard for.)
Introduce the Product
Link need with solution the product offers (You too can take advantage of the Alumni Term Life Insurance Plan and provide the people you love with the same security that Janet and Steve did for their family.)
Make the Product Desirable
Focus on reader benefits in product description (The Power Vac’s 6-metre cord allows you to vacuum even the largest rooms from a single outlet.)
Balance and dispel possible doubts (If you ever worried that a home security system might mean a loss of privacy, we want to reassure you that our monitoring system is activated only when the alarm is triggered.)
Mention price early if price is low
De-emphasize price if price is high
Mention late
Use smaller units
Calculate cost after discount
Show savings
Link price with benefits
Ask for a simple action
Make the action as easy as possible
Include contact info for immediate response (Say yes to your Pre-Approved Acceptance Certificate today! Simply complete and mail it to us in the postage-paid envelope provided or give us a call at 1-877-553-0123.)
Provide a deadline
Use an incentive
An optional step: add a postscript
High impact statement
Use to summarize, spotlight, or make a final appeal (P.S. If you’re concerned about workplace stress, make mindfulness part of your work routine through MindSet’s five-session Resiliency-Plus training program. Sign up today to learn from an accredited MRSR professional and feel the difference mindfulness can make)

Sales Follow-Up
Express appreciation, goodwill, and promote future business
Confirm the details of the sale and offer additional services

Fundraising Messages
Variation on the sales letter
Steps to follow:
Identify an important problem: Explain why the reader should care
Show that the problem is solvable: Describe how your organization can respond
Explain what your organization is doing:
Show the funds go to the cause
Demonstrate the difference the organization is making
Provide background information
Ask for a donation
Persuasion through Social Media
Techniques for establishing influence on social media:
Reciprocation—mirroring or responding in kind to another person’s post
Social proof—finding out what matters to other people and creating value for others through engaging content
Liking—establishing commonality by complimenting, making positive comments, or liking, sharing, or retweeting posts
Authority—establishing oneself as an expert (even if one’s expertise is perceived rather than actual)
Scarcity—opening up subscriptions to limited numbers of people and making their access to you more exclusive

Figure 9.15 Influencers can be identified according to eight basic archetypes. Do you follow any influencers on social media? -- Influencers: Third-party endorsers who have built relationships and earned trust with specific audiences or communities and who shape audience attitudes through tweets, blog entries, and other social media postings.
Traditional vs. Digital Marketing
Digital marketing takes many forms:
Explainer videos describing a product or service,
Social media promotions,
Search engine optimization (SEO),
Optimized articles,
Mail newsletters featuring exclusive offer
Traditional offline marketing:

Direct mail
Billboards
Print ads
Radio Commercials
TV Commercials
Telemarketing


Promotion & Self-Promotion in Social Media
“Promotion” is another way of thinking about persuasion in professional settings.
A big part of this is strategic marketing approach known as digital content marketing (DCM), which involves creating, distributing and sharing relevant, compelling and timely content to attract and engage a clearly defined group of customers when they are considering a purchase, keeping them engaged, and converting their interest to sales.
Digital Content Marketing (DCM):
Create, distribute, and share relevant, compelling, and timely content
Attract and engage a clearly defined group
Keep customers engaged, convert interest into sales
Distributed through brand websites, podcasts, webinars, blogs, social media, and e-mail

DCM Best Practices
Establish goals for content marketing: brand awareness, build engagement, convert interest to sales, or promote community
Identify audience: who can your content help or benefit?
Develop a unique and compelling brand story
Create relevant, quality, informative content: Opt for innovative choices and multimodal content (e.g. videos, podcasts) to appeal to a wider audience and consider preparing your content for voice search to make it more accessible
Interact with customers and listen to feedback: use platforms that enable dyadic, two-way communication and feedback and facilitate real-time conversation with customers
Show knowledge, helpfulness, and problem-solving abilities in B2B interactions
Self-created content is better perceived than sponsored content, more controllable than user generated
To create an authentic self-brand
Make a professional profile that builds trust and speaks to impact
Curate content and update frequently
Interact with colleagues and clients
Communicating for Employment {Chapter 10}
Assessing Your Skills & Values
Professional stock-taking and personal soul-searching can guide you to the right career path.
Self-assessment involves considering what you enjoy doing, identifying personality traits that apply to your work style, and learning from earlier work experiences
What are your values, interests, and marketable skills?
What are you good at? What are you most interested in doing?
Are you willing to acquire new skills or restrain to advance?
What drew you to your career path?
What is your 5-10-year plan? What are you willing to do to make that happen?
Do you live to work or work to live?

Assessing your Work Preferences & Personality
Are you an introvert or an extrovert?
Do you like working with people, materials, ideas, or data?
Do you prefer working in a large or small organization?
Would you rather work with a group or alone?
Are you best in a lead role or a support role?
Do you appreciate and apply feedback?
Do you like fast-paced or slow-paced work?
Would you rather be a generalist or specialist?
What rewards do you want?

Assessing your Work History
Soft skills include
approach to work (including flexibility and resourcefulness)
knowledge and quality of work
organization and time/task management
client service orientation and social sensitivity
communication and interpersonal skills
leadership, teamwork, and team skills
analytical thinking/problem-solving/decision-making
result achievements and ability to cope with responsibility
professional development and interest in lifelong learning
What are your key accomplishments?
What is the most meaningful work recognition you’ve received?
What are your most satisfying tasks, experiences and work relationships?
What work experiences have you most Disliked?
How well do you communicate and learn on the job?
What hard and soft skills do you have?

Job-hunting
Tap into the full potential of social media: LinkedIn, Twitter, Facebook, Google+, Pinterest, Instagram, Tumblr, and blogs
Master electronic job-search techniques: Most job-bank websites allow you to post your resumé online, browse through thousands of ads by occupation or geographic area, and set up alerts that will notify you when a new job listing in your area of interest has been posted
Read the career pages, classified ads, and financial sections of newspapers, trade and professional journals, and business magazines
Learn to decode job advertisements: Job ads are packed with specific details as well as subtler hints about what it is looking for from a successful candidate. Read the ad carefully, paying close attention to key phrases and keywords and incorporating the exact same keywords in exactly the same way in your resume and cover letter.
Assess Job and Organization Fit: Person-organization fit is a matter of compatibility between a jobseeker and an organization based on shared characteristics and how they meet each other’s needs
organizational justice: perceptions of fairness in the treatment of employees
organization-wide job characteristics
the psychological contract: how organization regulate activities
intrinsic motivation
rewards
leadership
working relationship quality
Learn to network: Networking is an essential business tool that involves meeting new contacts and cultivating relationships that could lead to professional success
Community and volunteer activities
Networking events
Professional conferences
Mentorship programs
Professional societies
Informational interviews
Optimize your online professional brand
Use business cards and elevator pitches
Use the hidden job market: write an unsolicited letter of application and send it to the company along with your resumé; cold call
Visit career centres or employment agencies: register early; check out job notice boards and ask about counselling services
Think ahead: Look into the possibility of getting a summer internship or co-op job while you are still a student.
Polish your interpersonal and communication skills

Using Social Media to Attract Potential Employers
Create quality, business-oriented social profiles: only positive, professional photos; grammatically correct, well-thought-out, error free posts
Get to be known as an expert: demonstrate knowledge in your field and how you could be an asset
Show you are a team player: emphasize connections, show yourself in “we” rather than “me” light
Be engaged: network, join professional groups, sign up for subscriptions to show you’re interested in your field
Using LinkedIn & Twitter to Establish an Online Presence
LinkedIn
Include a professional photo
Make connections with other users
Detail your experience and education
“About” summary: demonstrate expertise, use industry keywords
Customize the profile address with your name
Add relevant visual content: PowerPoints, video, etc.
Solicit endorsements and recommendations
Update your profile to reflect fresh achievements
Twitter
Create a professional profile (create a separate personal profile if needed)
Use a high-quality headshot
Link to your blog or website
Customize the header
Follow people, professional organizations, and institutions in your field
Connect with your LinkedIn account
Writing Persuasive Resumes
Resume: one-two page personal marketing tool that tells prospective employers about your education, employment experience, and skill sets
Convince employers to interview you
Show employers your ability to communicate in writing
HR specialists spend a minute or less reading each resumé
May enter electronic resumés (or scans of printed resumés) into a job-tracking system for keyword matches

Resume Writing Style
Requires a tight, clipped, action-oriented style that focuses on results
Telegraphic phrases that begin with action verbs (see Table 10.2) take the place of complete sentences
Use capitals and/or boldface for headings
Avoid all caps and italics in other parts of resumé
Use consistent indenting
Leave space between sections
Proofread to catch errors
Accuracy can make or break a resumé

Parts of a Standard Resume
Contain following section with an asterisk are optional
Name & contact information
No heading needed
Include full name, email address, and phone number; URL if applicable
Best not to include permanent address (and/or local campus address) or other personal information such as date of birth, social insurance number, or age
Objective/Career Profile
Short, assertive summary of qualifications and career path
Descriptive phrases with minimal punctuation
Examples: (1) Marketing position with opportunity for growth and development (2) To assist low-income families in finding housing and support services
Summary of Qualifications / Education / Experience
Alternative to Career Objective section
High impact statement to create overall picture of you in relation to the job
List all degrees, diplomas and certificates - Degree/diplomas, academic honours, location, field of study, dates
List paid jobs and relevant internships, volunteer work, and self-employment - Job title, company, location, dates, duties and achievements
Skills & Capabilities
Computer programs, languages, procedures, certifications, specific job skills
Awards / Honours & Activities
Scholarships, volunteer work, leadership
References
Ask permission from reference first
List name, title, company, and contact information
Bring to the interview - include in resumé if requested
Resume Styles & Layouts
Chronological resumé: A document in which a job applicant’s work experience, education, and personal achievements are presented in reverse time sequence, with the most recent experience in each category listed first
Functional resumé: A document in which a job applicant’s qualifications are presented in terms of notable achievements and abilities rather than work experience
Combination resumé: A document that combines characteristics of chronological and functional resumé
Resume Tips
Tell the truth: A resumé is a legal document; fraudulent to lie on a resumé and unethical to tell half-truths; these practices are grounds for disqualification or, if discovered after hiring,
dismissal.
Keep your resumé up to date: Schedule regular resumé updates; last-minute updates can result in sloppy formatting and typos.
Create different versions of your resumé: email attachment and scannable version
Fine-tune your resumé for each new application: Revise career objective statement to match the job
Avoid gimmicks: Print your resumé on good quality, standard 81/2– by 11–inch white paper; use enough white space to make your resumé easy to read
Preparing a Scannable Resume
A paper or an electronic resumé that is prepared for scanning through uncluttered formatting and inclusion of a keywords section.
Include a keywords section of up to 50 relevant keywords
Current and previous job titles
Job-specific professional jargon and its synonyms
Titles of software programs
Marketable skills
Interpersonal traits
DO
DO NOT
Put name and address on every page
Use reader-friendly sans-serif font (Arial 10 or 12)
Include white space
Use as many pages as necessary


Use horizontal or vertical lines
Use unusual fonts
Use special characters, bullets, italics, underlining, graphics, slashes, or page numbers
Print on colored or textured paper
Fold staple or fax

Preparing a Persuasive Cover Letter
A letter that accompanies a resumé to summarize a job applicant’s qualifications and value to a prospective employer
Usually one page, but not skimpy
Introduces you to a prospective employer and helps to make a good first impression
Interprets raw data from your resumé so readers may better understand how your skills and experience fit the requirements of a specific job
Just a few paragraphs to grab the reader’s attention and leave a strong impression—leaving no room for errors in grammar, spelling, and typography

Solicited Application Letters
Introductory Paragraph
Gain attention
Name specific job
Include competition or reference numbers
Clearly state that you’re applying
Briefly show that you possess the major qualifications required
Summary + Request—summarize your qualification and request consideration
Shared Values—explain how your values fit the company’s and request consideration
Request—simply ask to be considered
Name—mention the name of an employee who recommended the job to you
Middle Paragraphs
Relate your skills
Use action verbs
Describe relevant skills, education, experience, and achievements
Emphasize strongest skills
Closing Paragraph
Ask for action
Ask to arrange an interview
Tell the employer that you will call
Request should be courteous
Unsolicited Application Letters
A letter in which a jobseeker introduces himself or herself and asks about job openings
Show some enthusiasm
Use the indirect approach (for persuasive messages)
Do research that enables you to demonstrate your interest in and knowledge of the company (the products it manufactures, the personnel it seeks, and the challenges it faces)

Personal Statements
Less formulaic than cover letter
Do not duplicate parts of resume, cover letter, or transcript
Reframe the information in a new light —give the employer a chance to get to know you, your capabilities, and your career aspirations
Give specific examples and anecdotes related to your experience or professional development
Focus each paragraph on one of your skills: e.g., teamwork, ability to work independently, interpersonal skills, communication skills)
Show clarity of thought and enthusiasm, and that you have knowledge of the program, job, or organization
Introduction
Catchy or calculated personal statement
Why interested in job/program/organization
Supporting paragraphs
Give specific and relevant examples of skills
Anecdotes of professional development
Reason for application
Concluding
Draw together strands of story
Explain why a good fit

E-mailing Resume
Follow submission instructions
Use keywords
Include cover letter
Make subject line specific
Submit attachments in requested format – PDF

Additional Job Application Tips
Keep track of where you applied
Create a professional voicemail greeting, email address
Protect your privacy, personal information
Deliver your application on time and as instructed

Career & E-Portfolios
Three-ring binder or digital format
Collection of work samples to show how you apply your knowledge, values, and expertise in the products you create: brochures, presentations, marketing materials, papers, studies, project descriptions, reports, etc.
Professional design, error free — critical
Work samples
Statement of career goals
Summary of research projects
Professional development activities
Volunteer word & community service
Letters of recommendation & references

Job Application Videos
Becoming increasingly important, esp. for customer-facing positions
Can take several forms:
short pre-recorded video submitted with application to make an impact, stand-in for resume, or give one-way interview answers to pre-set questions
live interview conducted from a self-selected location or the potential employer’s office via a platform such as Skype or Google Hangout
HR managers can find them risky
Show applicants’ age, ethnicity, and gender
Legal issues, discrimination
Basic tips: (1) dress for the job; (2) choose quiet, well-lit setting; (3) create a script as a guide; (4) be brief: 1-3 minutes; (5) edit for best quality

Before the Interview

Learn about the company
Know your non-verbal habits
Dress for the job
Anticipate questions
Talk about problem-solving
Rehearse what you can

Prepare in order to minimize job interview anxiety: research employer, job description, company values, goals, products, services, corporate structure, people, culture, awards, customers, and competitors
Become familiar with your non-verbal communication habits: posture, facial expressions, gestures; avoid closed body language and fidgeting
Dress for the job: reflect the position and the company culture; good hygiene and grooming
Anticipate what questions you might be asked: think of typical interview questions and how you would answer them; e.g.:
What skills will you bring to the company that will help us meet our goals?
How would you describe your skills?
Why should we hire you when other applicants might have better credentials or more experience?
What attracted you to this position at our company?
Can you give me examples of where you have demonstrated the competencies you think will be key to performing well in this job?
Be prepared to talk about your experiences and how you handled problems: Relevant experience, situations. How did you handle problems in a previous job? What previous work achievements and successes might apply here?
Prepare several good questions to ask the interviewer: Job candidates are judged in part on the questions they ask; prepare relevant questions to appear wise, interested, and informed
Practise. Rehearse what you can: Film yourself answering typical interview questions and assess your performance

Behaviour Description Interviewing
BDI is the most accurate means of establishing skills and motivations.
It is not simple and many interviewers avoid it because they cannot understand it.
You can help yourself by answering questions using a story about your past behaviour.
Objective is to get you to describe how you have behaved in a particular situation.
Question like: “Tell me about a time when you had to solve a technical problem under pressure from your boss.”
It helps to look over significant event in your life before going on interviews.
If you believe your story fits the question, tell it.
If you have not done the specific thing discussed, think of something that you believe is similar.
When you have not got the actual experience requested, admit it. But follow with “But I have had this experience, which may give you an idea of how I handled a similar situation

Behavioural Interview Questions
Behavioural interview questions require interviewees to explain their actions in specific work situations
They help interviewers evaluate hard-to-measure qualities and abilities
Problem-Solving
Give an example of a time when you had to solve a challenging problem. How did you respond to the challenge?
Time Management & Stress Management
Describe a situation where you had many projects due at the same time.
Results Achievement
Give an example of a time when your organizational skills really paid off.
Leadership
Give an example of a time when you had to persuade other people to take action.
Teamwork & Collaborative Skills
Tell me about a time when you were part of a team and one of its members wasn’t pulling his or her weight
Creativity
Give an example of a project you initiated.
Achieving Results – Time Management
How do you normally go about an assigned task?

How to Answer Behavioural Questions
STARS
Situation: outline the situation
Task: note any tasks you performed
Actions: describe actions you took
Results: state the results
Skills: reflect on the skills you used

At the Interview
Conduct yourself professionally:
Be on time or a little early: plan your route ahead of time
Go alone: unless you require physical assistance, leave family and friends at home
Bring copies of your resumé, references, work samples, or your portfolio: for you to refer to
Mind your manners, be courteous to everyone you encounter before, during and after interview
Make a confident first impression: firm handshake, eye contact, genuine smile
Listen carefully to questions: do not interrupt
Speak clearly and confidently: use pleasant tone and as few uhms, ahems, yups, and ahs as possible. Avoid slang or mumbling. Avoid simple yes/no or one-word answers
Concentrate: use body language to show interest, avoid showing anything that suggests boredom
Avoid being negative: especially avoid negative comments about yourself, former employers, or colleagues; negative comments can make you seem difficult
Make use of your research: when appropriate, drop tidbits of info about company/industry to show you are knowledgeable and interested
Don’t focus on salary and benefits: ask for information you require, but put your emphasis on what you can do for the company
Don’t expect an immediate response: ask the interviewer when you might expect a decision; show courtesy by thanking the interviewer
After the Interview
Send a thank you message within 24 hours
Consider your options
If you receive an offer:
Take time to decide – express appreciation and ask for a day or two to decide (I’d like a little time to consider your offer. May I call you back tomorrow?)
Turn it down tactfully if you must decline
Follow-Up Employment Messages
Follow-up message: An informative message that summarizes the key points of a job interview.
Send if you haven’t heard a response within a reasonable time
Let the employer know you are still interested
Jog their memory
Thank-you message:
Send within 24 hours
Express enthusiasm for the position
Personalize the message
Send a thank-you message to your references as well
Job-offer Acknowledgment:
Acknowledge you received the offer
Can ask for time to decide
Job-acceptance message:
Accept the offer in writing
Restate the details to make sure they are correct
Job-refusal message:
Decline the offer
Thank the employer for the offer
Maintain a good relationship
Reference request message:
Choose people who think well of you and can speak knowledgeably about your skills
Ask permission before listing the person
Ask someone else if the person hesitates
Update the referee about the applications, your goals, and your recent accomplishments
Informal Reports {Chapter 11}
Introduction to Report Writing
Business report help managers and co-workers to

Stay informed
Review opinions
Coordinate
Plan/Make decisions

Business report: document in which factual information is compiled and organized for a specific purpose and audience
essential form of corporate communication
help departments to coordinate initiatives and activities
help managers to stay in touch with and on top of changing circumstances
let management see the big picture to respond quickly and decisively to minor personnel, business, and technical difficulties before they become major problems
over years, reports form an extended and permanent corporate journal that tracks trends and includes accounts of incidents, actions, decisions, and policies
legal documents that can be used as evidence in court, so they must be accurate, complete, and objective

Factors in Successful Reports
Content:
Write with your objective in mind
Weigh information according to the report’s future use
Include facts to assist the reader in decision-making
Present information that relates directly to the problem you are solving
Don’t manipulate your facts and findings
Think of readers’ needs when selecting information
What background information do they have?
Organize the report logically
Good organization makes it easier to understand
Clarity:

Write simple sentences
Guide the reader
Cite sources
Include visuals
Use consistent evaluation criteria

Skimmability

Readable font
Informative headings/ lists


Informal vs. Formal Reports
Informal report: A report using a letter or memo format, usually ranging from a few paragraphs to ten pages in length.
Formal report: A multi-page business document based on extensive research and following a prescribed format or pattern that includes elements such as a title page, transmittal or cover letter, table of contents, and abstract.


Short Reports: Purpose
Informational report: A short report that collects data related to a routine activity without offering analysis or recommending action; its three parts are introduction, findings, and summary/conclusion
readers of this type of report are in a neutral or receptive frame of mind: they want to know certain facts without being persuaded of anything
analytical report (or recommendation report): A report that interprets and analyzes information and offers recommendations based on findings
greater thought has to be given to how readers might respond and to how the pros and cons of each alternative should be weighed, presented, and discussed

Short Reports: Formats & Distribution
Memorandum report: A short, internal report presented in memo format, letter report: A short, external report presented in letter format.
List of formats goes from least formal (top) to most formal (bottom)
Memorandum:
appropriate for circulating data internally
Under 10 pages
Informal, conversational style
1- to 11/4-inch (2.54- to 3.18-centimetre) side margins
standard guidewords TO, FROM, DATE, and SUBJECT
single-spaced paragraphs separated by two blank lines
Prepared form report:
forms with standardized headings
useful for recording repetitive data or describing routine activities
internal
Letter:
short, informal reports
prepared by one organization and sent to another on company stationery
all the elements usually found in a letter (date, inside address, return address, salutation, complimentary close)
PowerPoint Report:
short written reports, especially periodic reports such as progress reports
best to use notes in a printed slide deck in order to provide adequate explanation of the text and graphics on each slide
Formal report:
usually prepared in manuscript format
printed on plain paper
have headings and subheadings

Direct Approach
informational & analytical reports
routine, non-sensitive information
readers don’t need persuading
Standard for most informational reports
Structure:
Purpose/Introduction/Background
Facts and Findings
Summary
Also used in analytical reports when reader will not need persuading:
Structure:
Introduction/Problem/Background
Conclusions or Recommendations
Facts and Findings
Discussion and Analysis

Indirect Approach
analytical reports
expect reader resistance or displeasure
reader needs persuading and/or educating
builds gradual acceptance
Mirrors the logical processes of problem-solving
Build up to conclusion or recommendations
Structure:
Purpose/Introduction/Problem
Facts and Findings
Discussion and Analysis
Conclusions or Recommendations

Writing Style for Short Reports
readers have to be able to decode the text when reading quickly
check for ambiguous words and phrases
If in doubt, spell it out in specifics
Personal tone: personal language, personal pronouns, contractions, somewhat relaxed; use only when you know your reader fairly well
Impersonal tone: reader is stranger or top manager; neutral but not stuffy
Always avoid language that could offend, including words that exaggerate or show bias

Headings
The longer a report, the more readers rely on headings to scan, skim, and navigate the document.
Different heading levels (distinguished by size, colour, weight, underlining, and italics) can show which parts of the report belong together and the relative importance of each part.
Heading: Title or subtitle, usually a word or short phrase, within the body of a document that identifies its parts and gives clues to its organization.
functional heading: Each of a series of generic headings that, when taken together, show a report in outline.
descriptive head: (or talking head) A heading that describes the actual content of a report and provides more information about it

Tips for Using Headings
Keep them short: Maximum eight words
Parallel construction: use balanced phrases and a parallel structure
Examples:
Not parallel: Improved Transmission of Sensitive Information
How can we end e-mail errors?
Voicemail problems
Why we should change fax procedures
Parallel: Improved Transmission of Sensitive Information
Ending e-mail errors
Eliminating voicemail problems
Changing fax procedures
Clearly rank headings: Show the rank and relative importance of headings by formatting each level systematically
Put headings where they belong: only use a subheading if the material that follows is divided into at least two subsections; only put near page bottom if at least 2 lines of text follow (move to following page, otherwise)
Don’t use a heading as the antecedent for a pronoun: do not begin the line of text after heading or subheading with this, that, these, or those alone—the reader may not know what you are referring to

Steps in the Writing Process
Planning

Scope
Resources
Time
Budget
Personnel
Special services
Responsibilities
Create a work plan; timeline

Researching / Analyzing Information
Current, valid, reliable and accurate
Evaluate, analyze and tabulate data
Record and cite sources
essential to evaluate data to decide what portion of it is usable
analytical reports require analysis and tabulation of data—spotting trends and relationships among gathered facts and numerical data, identifying logical patterns, and being prepared to back them up with illustrations
keep track of data sources:
the title of the document, web page, article, periodical, book, and/or other work from which it was taken
the author’s name
the publisher/web address
the publication date/web access date
establish a system for storing the information you collect
Composing & Revising
Create an outline
Complete multiple drafts and revisions
Take a break before proofreading
Show changes to contributors for approval
Alphanumeric outline: An outlining system that combines numbers and letters to differentiate levels of headings.
Decimal outline (or numeric outline): An outlining system that uses a combination of numbers and decimal points to differentiate levels of headings.

Elements of Informal Reports
Introduction: The first section in the body of a report, which provides readers with the information they need in order to understand and evaluate the report itself; it must include either the report’s purpose or a statement of the problem the report addresses.
Introductory statement
States the purpose of the report; may also link that with recommendations
Previews key points
Outlines data collection methods
Findings: The most substantial part of a report, in which qualitative and numeric data is presented and organized by time, convention, order of importance, or component.
Findings
Organizes the data by subheadings
Chronological/alphabetical
Comparisons
Component parts/evaluative criteria
Discussion/analysis
Interprets findings
Summary: The closing or second-last section of a report that briefly restates its main points.
conclusions and recommendations: The closing section of an analytical or a recommendation report in which specific actions are proposed to solve a problem or aid decision- making.
Summary/conclusions/recommendations
Restates main points
Conclusions
Objective analysis of findings
Recommendations
Suggests actions to solve problem

Using Graphics and Visuals
Visual aids: Materials such as charts, graphs, tables, and illustrations that present information in visually appealing ways to show trends and relationships, represent numbers and quantities, and make abstract concepts concrete
may replace words
make numerical information meaningful
clarify and simplify complex data
provide extra emphasis
Table: present exact figures
Matrix: present qualitative info
Pie chart: show proportions of a whole
Bar chart: compare one item with others
Line chart: changes in numerical data over time
Flow chart: show a procedure
Organizational chart: show structure/hierarchy of company
Tables
A chart that presents data, usually numerical, in a compact and systematic arrangement of rows and columns
Can be simple (2 columns) or complex (multiple columns)
Use the table above to illustrate the features of a table:
useful for drawing attention to specific numbers and drawing comparisons between them
Fit onto 1 page
Heading with table number and an appropriate title/caption; number tables sequentially within report, separate from figures
Label all parts
Clearly identify units in which figures are given
Use N/A, row of dots, or a dash to show missing data
Improve readability by shading alternate rows

Matrixes
A word table that presents qualitative information in a rectangular format or arrangement
Qualitative information rather than numerical data
Used to consolidate complex information in a page or less

Pie Charts
A circular chart divided into sections, where each section represents a numerical proportion of the whole
Whole circle = 100
Each slice represents a percentage
Useful to compare a segment to the whole

Bar Charts
A visual consisting of parallel horizontal or vertical bars of varying lengths, each representing a specific item for comparison.
Bars can be segmented, divided or stacked
Bars arranged in logical or chronological order
Bars should be the same width, close enough together to make comparison easy
Data should be properly scaled to fill the entire chart, not just squeezed into one corner

Picture Graphs
A visual that uses pictorial symbols to represent quantities of particular items.
Arranged in bars that can then be labelled with total quantity

Line Graphs
A visual that uses lines on a grid to show trends according to the relationship between two variables or sets of numbers.
Grouped line graph A line graph that makes comparisons between two or more items.
show the relationship between two variables on a grid, plotted by connecting the dots to form a continuous line
useful for showing trends, fluctuations, or progressions over a period of time
quantities (e.g., litres, dollars, percentages) go on the vertical y axis; time always goes on the horizontal x axis.
to draw attention to values, mark small dots at intersection points
to emphasize the difference between two lines, shade between the lines
presentation of data needs to be free of distortion and all data distributed equally over the graph (graphs above compare ineffective graph with effective graph—scale distortion on left, accurate scale on right)
as needed, include a key that explains lines and symbols

Gantt Graphs
A bar chart that is used to show a schedule
Used for planning and scheduling projects
Useful for blocking out periods of time, e.g., what stage a project has reached or when staff will be on vacation

Flow Graphs
A diagram that maps out procedures, processes, or sequences of movement.
Use captioned symbols of different geometrical shapes (called ISO symbols) joined by lined arrows
Each shape represents a particular stage in the process
Help to clarify procedures and make complex systems understandable

Organizational Charts
A diagram that shows how various levels or sectors of an organization are related to one another
Map out the structure of a company
Show chains of command and channels of communication
Make it clear who reports to whom

Infographics and Data Visualizations
A visual display that conveys data or information in a quick, clear, and engaging way
Visual displays to represent data and information
Communicate complex information to a large audience
Draw connections and highlight patterns
Use good visual design
Can be designed using apps
keep in mind the principles of visual design: balance, proximity, alignment, repetition, contrast, and use of space
unity can be achieved through the repetition of elements within the design, such as a row of icons or a series of caption balloons
bright colours draw viewers’ attention
contrast between colours helps viewers differentiate components

Infographic Best Practices
informative, sharable content, pace and simplicity, most important element = focal point, concise message, easy to read font, clear captions, visuals > text
Charts for comparisons
Graphs for trends
Symbols for products
Floating balloons for percentages

Informational Reports
Periodic Reports:
Written at regular intervals (weekly, monthly, etc.)
Describe recurring/ongoing activities (monthly sales calls, customer service volumes, etc.)
Record data and outcomes
Help management monitor situations and stay informed on status quo
Situational Reports:
Non-routine, case-by-case
Business trip/conference reports
Project progress reports

Short Informational Reports
Incident
Document unexpected or unusual problems/occurrences that affect day-to-day operations
Provide complete and accurate details of what happened
Answer Who, What, Where, When, How, Why?
Investigative
Evaluate problems or situations
Usually in response to one-time request for information
May or may not present conclusions and recommendations
Compliance
disclose information to governing bodies and government agencies in compliance with laws and regulations
Summaries
Compress and condense longer information to just what management needs to know—primary ideas, conclusions, and recommendations
To-file
permanent, written record of decisions, discussions, and directives; left on file for future reference
summarize decisions made and list the individuals involved in making them

Incident Reports
Also known as “accident reports”
Usually filed between 24 and 72 hours of incident
Include names and contact info of supervisor/reporter and any witnesses
Present facts objectively and avoid assigning blame—a detailed description of the event, including time, place, and names of individuals involved
Document any injury or damage
Assess the causes of the incident/accident
Make recommendations to prevent it from happening again
Usually follow memo format; often use forms or templates so can be filled in and filed quickly
Subject line—identifies the precise or event and the date it occurred.
Opening—provides a brief summary statement noting the incident/accident, the date it took place, who it primarily affected, and what the result was.

Problem-Investigation Reports
Written for two reasons:
To provide information or research that does not result in action or recommendation, as follow-up to a request
To document how a problem has been resolved
Describe the issue clearly (e.g., repairs, reorganization, new equipment, etc.)
May include possible solutions
Summary of main points defines the problem, notes its cause(s) and resolution, and notes any further steps that should be taken.
Background or history establishes the report’s purpose and sets out the circumstances in which the problem was discovered and the causes of the problem the report investigates

Summary Reports
Managers rely on well-prepared summaries that put key facts and opinions at their fingertips
Collect sources and summarize the relevant points
Include author and title to make it easy to find the original
Do not introduce your own ideas
Trip/Conference Reports
Internal report
Share information gained on trip
Present highlights
Be selective—organize by topic, not chronologically
Justify expenses
Subject line—identifies the event/destination and the date(s) of the trip.
Introduction—gives the event/destination, specifies exact dates, explains the purpose of the trip, and previews main points

Activity Reports
Also called periodic or status reports
routine, recurring reports
typically prepared by supervisors to help middle and senior managers stay informed of activities and alert to unusual events that might negatively affect operations
complete, accurate, and objective account of events—both good and bad—that have taken place during the reporting period
Summary—summarize accomplishments during report period; “What have we done?”

Progress Reports
Monitor a project at various intervals from start-up to completion
Indicate if project is on schedule
Identify any measures needed to solve problems
Opening summary (no heading)—comments on the current status of the project in terms of the original schedule and goals.
“Work Completed”—describes what has been done since the last report and notes any problems and solutions.

Job Completion Reports
Last report in series of progress reports for large projects
One-time reports for completion of small projects
Typically, 3 pages or less
Bigger budget = longer, more detailed report
Ensure shared understanding of the work done
Summarize any follow-up actions
Opening—provides a concise overview, naming the project and its client, confirming the completion of the project, briefly identifying major tasks or activities, and noting outcomes, successes, next steps, or special circumstances.

Short Analytical Reports
Analytical reports pass on information with the intent of persuading readers to follow a specific course of action
“analysis” in an analytical report is focused on how to solve a specific organizational problem
Recommendation/Justification
Show why a specific change is needed
Feasibility
Evaluate projects to determine chances for success
Comparison/Yardstick
Compares and evaluates two or more solutions to a single problem and answers the question, which option is best?
Proposals
Suggest ways to solve problems (internal or external)
May sell a product or service

Identifying the Problem / Purpose
Effective business reports answer questions and solve one or more real and significant problems
identifying the problem is the first step
The type of problem being solved determines the type of report:
Recommendation report: What should we do to increase efficiency of our printers?
Feasibility report: Should we expand our customer base by introducing a line of products that appeals to teens?
Yardstick report: Which of three proposed options would enable APL Technologies to upgrade its file servers?
Purpose statement describes the scope, limitations, and importance of the investigation—i.e., how the report will address the problem identified
Steps in starting an analytical report
Develop a problem statement or question
Decide what type of report should be written
Write a purpose statement
What is the scope of the investigation?
Are there any limitations (time, budget, etc.)?

Justification/Recommendation Reports: Direct Writing Plan
sometimes known as internal proposals
make suggestions for new or improved facilities, equipment, processes, capital appropriations, or organizational change
direct writing plan frontloads both the report problem and the recommendation for a solution to that problem (e.g., low cost, easy to implement)

Justification/Recommendation Reports: Indirect Writing Plan
indirect writing plan can help writers win over cautious or reluctant audiences


Feasibility Reports
Help determine a project’s chances for success by answering questions such as:
Does it make good business sense?
Is it right for the company?
Is it practical and workable according to certain criteria?
Can the company afford the costs involved?
Feasibility reports use a direct writing plan to announce the decision first
Opening paragraph—identifies the plan and reveals your decision/recommendation about it; offers an overview of the report.
Introduction/Background—describes the problem or circumstances that led to the report and discusses the scope, methods, and limitations of the study and the amount of data that could be collected to answer the feasibility question.

Comparison/Yardstick Reports
Compare two or more options
Identify specific evaluative criteria
Rank the options if possible
Recommend the option that fits the criteria best
Identify the problem, need, or opportunity that led to the report.
NOTE: sample report is abridged for space

Proposals & Formal Reports {Chapter 12}
Proposals
Proposal: A business document that suggests a method for solving a problem or that seeks approval for a plan.
Persuade the reader
Ask for action, business, or funding
Strength, confidence, creditability
Direct approach
Internal proposal: A persuasive document that attempts to convince management to spend money or to implement plans to improve the organization.
External proposal: A proposal issued to governmental or private industry clients outside an organization as a means of generating income.
request for proposals (RFP): A detailed document requesting proposals and bids on specific projects

Elements of Informal Proposals
Introduction
overview of proposal, scope and highlights of your qualifications
Background
Details problem to be solved or opportunity to be addressed
Proposal, Method, and Schedule
Products and services offered
Feasibility
Work plan
Materials and resources
Project timeline
Costs and Budget
Carefully break down costs for entire project (if applicable, for each phase of project)
Legal contract—care is crucial; be realistic and note any costs that are impossible to estimate
Staffing and Qualifications
Expertise and credentials of project leaders
Special resources and facilities
Include only the contact information you have permission to disclose
Benefits
Summarize reasons for accepting the proposal
Move client to action
Request for Authorization
Closing request
Stipulate the time period in which the proposal is valid
Express
confidence in the solution
appreciation for the opportunity to submit the proposal
willingness to provide further information if required

Elements of Formal Proposals
Formal proposals differ from informal proposals in length and format
Have additional elements that sort complex details into easy-to-understand units with customized headings
Front matter elements above are optional in informal reports
Front matter and back matter sandwich the body of the proposal
front matter: The parts of a proposal or report that are included before the main body and contain introductory information.
Cover Letter or Letter of Transmittal
bound inside the proposal as its first page and addressed to the person responsible for making the final decision
explains the proposal’s purpose, major features, and tangible benefits
either refer to the RFP or mention how you learned about the client needs
mention when the proposal expires
Executive Summary or Abstract
Executive summary is intended for decision-makers; gives the proposal’s highlights in persuasive, non-technical language
Abstract summarizes proposal’s highlights in specialized, technical language
Title Page
proposal title and subtitle in boldfaced type or upper-case letters
name of the client organization and/or the decision-maker to whom the proposal is directed
RFP reference number
name and title of the proposal writer and company
date of submission
Table of Contents (TOC)
Included with longer proposals
List all 1st and 2nd level heads in proposal, with pages numbers
List of Tables/Figures/Illustrations
Include if proposal contains more than 6 graphic elements
Provide page number for each
Body
Introduction
Background or Problem Statement
Detailed proposal and method
Schedule
Budget or cost analysis
Staffing
Authorization
Benefits and conclusion

Informal vs. Formal Reports
Informal report: A report using a letter or memo format, usually ranging from a few paragraphs to ten pages in length.
Formal report: A multi-page business document based on extensive research and following a prescribed format or pattern that includes elements such as a title page,

Creating Effective Business Plans
A business plan:
Is critical for securing financial support of any kind
Is a description of a proposed company that explains how it expects to achieve its marketing, financial, and operational goals
Will likely secure the funds it needs if it is well written
Can be written using software such as Business Plan Pro or a business app like Enloop
Letter of transmittal
Explains your reasons for writing
Provides contact information for all principals
Describes your business idea concisely, including benefits for the investor
Includes a summary of the market, a brief note about the competition, and reasons why the plan is worthy
Mission statement
Explains the purpose of the business and why it will succeed
Components of
Effective Business Plans
Executive summary
Is written last and highlights main points of business plan
Should not exceed two pages
Introduces the parts of the plan and asks for financial backing
Table of contents and company description
Lists page numbers and topics included in the plan
Identifies the form of business and its type
Components of
Effective Business Plans
Product or service description
Explain what you are providing and how it will benefit the customers.
Explain why it is better than existing products or services.
Explain why the business will be profitable.
Components of
Effective Business Plans
Market analysis
Discuss market characteristics, trends, and projected growth.
Describe customer behavior, complementary products and services, and barriers to entry.
Identify your customers and how you will attract, hold, and increase your market share.
Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of direct and indirect competitors.
Components of
Effective Business Plans
Operations and management
Explain how you will run your business: location, equipment, personnel, and management.
Highlight experienced and well-trained staff and advisors.

Components of Effective Business Plans
Financial analysis
Outline a realistic start-up budget.
Present an operating budget that projects costs.
Explain how much money you have and will need to stay in business.
Appendixes
Provide necessary extras, such as managers’ résumés, promotional materials, and product photos.

Researching & Collecting Data
Formal reports often involve extensive research
Sources of info:
in-house: e.g., internal files, memos, reports, or company databases or records
publicly available: e.g., consultants, experts, websites, books, or magazines
restricted: e.g., websites with paywalls, research by other companies and organizations
2 types of research:
Primary research: depends on first-hand sources; you generate the data you need, based on your own ideas and observations, by conducting interviews and surveys.
Secondary research: the retrieval of existing information based on what others have observed and experienced, by conducting a library or an online search

Where to find Information
Online
Current articles, online databases, company news, mission statements and directories, company profiles, product facts, government information, scientific reports, sound and video files, library resources, online newspapers and magazines, press releases, job banks, and employment information
Use Boolean operators for searches:
AND—using and between your search terms will give you titles of articles containing
all of the specified words (e.g., organization AND communication AND systems)
OR—linking search terms with or will yield documents containing at least one of the specified words (e.g., collaborative OR group OR communication)
NOT—using not will exclude articles containing the specified term
Databases
E.g., Ovid, Dialog, LexisNexis, and ABI/INFORM
Print
Computerized periodical indexes (e.g., Readers’ Guide to Periodical Literature and Business Periodicals Index)
Book indexes, encyclopedias, directories, almanacs, and online catalogues
Academic articles, abstracts, newspaper articles, government documents, and specialty and reference books
Primary, in-house sources
Company internal files and records
Network within your company to find in-house experts who may have prepared earlier reports
Interviews
By phone or in person
Expert or seasoned corporate veteran can yield valuable information
Observations
Can be quite subjective and very open to interpretation
Observations that are reported in terms of measurable results and outcomes may be perceived as more objective and credible

Conducting Interviews

Locate exports
Know subject’s background
Schedule in advance
Prepare 3-4 questions
Ask open questions
Establish boundaries
Record/take detailed notes
Be patient with interviewee
Be friendly/objective
End with appreciation


Preparing to Write Formal Reports
Before writing, think about:
Purpose: Why are you writing the report? What will it be used for?
Content: What is it about?
Audience: Who is it for?
Status: Is it a periodic/interim report (to be followed by another after a period of time) a or a special-projects report (one-time analysis written on request)?
Length: How long should it be?
Formality: How should it look and sound?
Accounts of major projects (10+ pages); e.g., development of new products or services; reorganization at departmental, divisional, or company-wide levels; or analysis of competing products or alternative methods
In-depth analysis and extensive research
Follow prescribed structure: front matter, body, back matter)
Organizations may have a “house” style

Writing Style for Formal Reports
Follow company style guide
Use interpersonal tone
Use third-person pronouns
Vary sentence lengths
Write short story paragraphs
Use consistent verb tenses
No contractions

Creating a Work Plan
Work plan: A document that defines the approach, personnel responsibilities, resource needs, and schedule for a major project
A work plan sketches out the project from beginning to end, making it easier to set priorities, allocate resources, and move forward
Contains:
statements of problem and purpose
a strategy for conducting research
a preliminary outline
work schedules for writing and submission
Time Management
Time management essential for meeting report deadlines

Learn when you work best
Set priorities
Avoid distractions
Start early
Break task into smaller
Ask for info if needed
Tell people if behind

Peer-Reviewing & Team Writing
Team writing: The practice of multiple writers working together to produce a single document.
Reports often have multiple authors
Requires careful collaboration
Before writing establish clear guidelines for tone, sentence and paragraph length, and word choice
Writing styles
Agree on style points before you start
Tidy the draft to smooth out contrasts in writing styles between sections
Minimize differences in writing styles
Ensure team is satisfied with the contents
Track changes and comments

Elements of Formal Report
Front matter
Cover
Title page
centred and spaced evenly on the page:
full title of report, in boldface and/or uppercase letters but not enclosed in quotation marks
name of the person and group or organization for which the report was prepared, prefaced by Prepared for, Presented to, or Submitted to
names of the writer(s) or compiler(s), along with their job title(s) and the name of their organization, prefaced by Prepared by or Submitted by
date of submission or date report is to be distributed
Letter of transmittal
officially introduces the report and provides permanent record of document delivery
written on company stationery
memo form for insiders, letter form for outsiders
begins with statement indicating topic and the fact that the report is being transmitted: Here is the report on privacy issues you requested on November 3 . . .
refers to report’s purpose and authorization under which it was written
briefly describes report and highlights its conclusions and recommendations
expresses appreciation for assignment and for special help received from others in its preparation
closes with follow-up action and an offer of assistance in answering questions or with looking forward to discussing the report’s details
Table of contents
Lists all sections or headings of report in order of appearance, giving initial page number for each
Front matter numbered using lower case Roman numerals
Word-processing programs allow you to generate a table of contents automatically
List of figures/tables/illustrations
If report has a few, list in section at bottom of TOC
If many, list on page following TOC
number tables and figures independently and consecutively with Arabic numbers (i.e., could be a Table 1 and a Figure 1)
Executive summary
Roughly 10 per cent of length of report
Overview of report’s most important information
Usually written after report
Body
Introduction
Purpose statement—1 to 2 sentences (to explain, to recommend)
Scope—lay out boundaries of report
Background—puts report in perspective; brief review of events that created problem or description of solutions that failed
Organization—maps out report’s structure
Sources and methods—outline procedures for any primary source research you did
Discussion of findings
Most substantial section
Discusses results on which recommendations are based, with careful interpretation and analysis of data and research
Use headings to guide reader through the section logically to build your case
Conclusions
What the findings mean
Restates main points of report
May be combined with recommendations
Recommendations
What steps to take next
Feasible and appropriate
Presented 1 at a time as numbered list
Start each one with a verb
Back matter
Appendices
Supplementary information too lengthy or detailed to include in body
Can be more than 1 appendix
Each appendix contains only 1 type of information: tables, diagrams, illustrations, etc.
References or works cited
Avoid plagiarism, support assertions, help reader access source material
APA documentation: author-date-page parenthetical in-text citations (refer to Table 12.2 in text)
MLA documentation: author-date parenthetical in-text citations (refer to Table 12.3 in text)
Glossary

Social Media & Mobile Communication {Chapter 14}
Social Media: Business Benefits
Canadians are heavy users of social media
Product/brand awareness
Sense of community
Customer communication
Sales venue

Social Media: Consumer Benefits
Product information
Comparisons and reviews
Online shopping
Consumer support

Participatory Culture & Social Media
A culture in which a person is both a consumer and a producer
Low barriers to creative expression and civic engagement
Support and mentorship among members for each other’s creations
Feelings of social connection between members
Belief that their contributions matter


New Media Literacies
Judgement
Ability to evaluate reliability and credibility of information/sources
How credible and reliable is the information?
Networking
Ability to search for, disseminate, synthesize info
Where can I find the information?
To whom should I pass it on, and in what form?
Collective intelligence
Ability to pool knowledge and compare information for common goals
What information can we collect together?
How do these stories compare?
Transmedia navigation
Ability to follow the flow of stories across multiple platforms
What are sources on other media platforms saying about this issue?
Appropriation
Ability to remix and reconcile conflicting information to form a coherent picture
How does all this conflicting information fit together?
What’s the big picture?
Negotiation
Ability to discern and respect multiple perspectives
How do I react respectfully to those with other perspectives or from other cultures?

What is Social Media?
Social Media: Interactive Internet-based and mobile-based tools and applications that are used for:
posting and sharing information
conducting conversation
delivering and exchanging publicly available media content by end-users

Social Media Business Goals
Social media has changed the way businesses collaborate, learn, market themselves, recruit employees, share ideas, communicate with customers and stakeholders
Generate traffic
Develop a following
Attract recruits
Create brand awareness
Facilitate interaction and engagement
Generate revenue
Respond to crises

Blogs
Blog: A web page on which a person posts his or her writings, opinions, and/or other information, usually on a regular basis.
Many companies maintain blogs to keep employees, customers, and shareholders up to date on important developments while reinforcing and building the company’s brand
Corporate blogs represent a shift in the way companies interact with customers and have been shown to build trust, liking, and involvement
Corporate blogs are useful for content marketing
content marketing: A type of marketing in which a company provides content of interest to a defined audience in order to boost its profile, attract new customers, and strengthen relationships with existing customers

Blogging Tips
Write consistently
Make sure readers know when to expect new content, and never miss a date
A minimum of 50 posts is required for Google to index a blog
Identify a valuable niche
Figure out what makes your approach to a topic different or unique.
Optimize keywords
Learn basic principles of search engine optimization (SEO)
Choose keywords that will be most likely to drive traffic to your blog
Determine the right type of post
Choose the type of post that will get your content across most effectively (previous slide)
Treat your posts as articles.
Use appropriate titles and headings, proper spelling and grammar, and a consistent style.
Be clear about authorship, and cite any external sources.
Aim for authority and credibility
Establish authority by sharing industry-related tips readers can apply to their own businesses or lives.
Be authentically yourself
Make yourself relatable by sharing aspects of your everyday life and personality.
Always clearly indicate whether a post is sponsored.
Incorporate images, videos, and other media
Long blocks of text can be intimidating.
Invite interaction
No blog is complete without comments, so invite them and use them to understand your followers.
Consider inviting guest bloggers or doing interviews.
Check out the competition
Keep up to date with similar blogs and leave comments to build relationships and attract readers to your own blog.

External Corporate Blogs
Consumer focused topics
Educate customers
Personal perspective
Distinct point of view
Best practices for corporate blogs aimed at external audiences:
write about topics that matter to customers
educate customers by offering trend and industry news
write from a personal perspective rather than a seller’s or brand-message perspective
provide a distinct point of view that complements other brand-based communications

Micro-Blogs (Twitter)
Micro-blog: A blog whose entries are shorter than those of a traditional blog
Twitter is most well-known example
Promote products and brand awareness
Monitor competition and trends
Monitor customer satisfaction
Find and share knowledge
Customer engagement
Connect with employees

Micro-Blogs Best Practices
Be professional and likeable
Create a professional-looking profile and username, and strive for a genuine, likeable tone.
Consider pursuing diversity and inclusion training in order to avoid reputation-damaging gaffes.
Ask questions and respond in real time
Responding to followers promptly can make them feel valued.
Use the right format
Consider whether tweets, replies, mentions, direct messages, or retweets will best suit your followers’ needs.
Be selective in what you tweet
Focus on industry news, professional development opportunities, or a professionally related article or question.
Follow only stakeholders and other relevant accounts
Organize the accounts you follow into separate groups and conversation lists (e.g., “Customers,” “Competitors,” “Professional Associations”).
Make your content accessible and shareable
Keep your tweets conversational and free of “marketing-speak.”
Make them shareable by crafting tweets that are inspiring, intriguing, newsworthy, or appropriately witty.
Retweet followers’ posts
Be sure to confirm that you are not retweeting a statement that might be contrary to your corporate values.
Use hashtags
Hashtags keep your posts searchable and encourage others to join the conversation.
Incorporate photos and links
Add value by incorporating interesting photos and links to articles and videos that provide a fuller context for your tweet.
Think of your tweet as an invitation to the reader to learn more.
Drive traffic to your blog or website
Include a link to your blog or website in your Twitter bio, and vice versa.
Use Twitter’s “Advanced Search” to connect with users in your area.
Local customers are often enthusiastic about supporting businesses in their communities.
Be strategic in the pace and timing of your tweets.
Keep followers interested, but don’t overload their feeds.

Podcasts
Audio files for streaming or downloading
May be episodes in a series
Can be used to educate consumers
Best practices:
Use a professional-quality recording app
Record podcasts with an app that replicates studio-recording suite functions, such as Audacity, GarageBand, Audio-Boom, or SoundCloud.
Follow a loose script
While reading word-for-word can result in a monotonous presentation, a brief script that outlines your major points will help to keep you on track.
Avoid going solo
Enter into dialogue or conversation with a co-presenter or guest to create a more dynamic experience for listeners.
Seek out and engage with followers
Promote your content on social media and seek out active users who can share your podcast.
Find an appropriate style
Experiment with podcasting styles to determine how and how much to assert your individual and brand personality.

Social Networking Sites
Social networking site: A website that facilitates communication and interaction between two or more people by allowing them to create profiles, send messages, write status updates or posts, and share photos, videos, and other media
Facebook, Google+, LinkedIn
A social media campaign provides access to millions of current and potential customers without the costs associated with more traditional forms of advertising
Encourage “word of mouth” marketing
Create brand communities
Publicize and promote events
Promote products and services
Recruit new hires and brand ambassadors

Facebook Best Practices
Offers businesses the benefits of “word-of-mouth” marketing through four basic steps:
building a page
connecting with people
engaging an audience
influencing friends of fans
Choose privacy settings carefully
Update page frequently
Stay on topic
Be brief, simple, relevant
Keep the design clean
Be accurate
Keep tone spontaneous, informal
Signpost company’s expertise
Post engaging, interactive content
Make some content Facebook exclusive

LinkedIn Best Practices
Customize your URL
Make your profile public
Complete your profile
Stay active
Connect and network
Ask for recommendations
Stay informed

Photo- and Video-Sharing Sites
Photo- and video-sharing site: A website with the main function of allowing users to post and share photos, videos, and multimedia
YouTube, Vimeo, Pinterest, Instagram, Flickr, SlideShare
carry the risk that copyrighted material will be shared
Announcements, Keynote speeches
company photos and commercials
Recruitment videos
customer feedback via comments

User-Generated Content (UGC)
UGC campaigns can be effective ways to build interest in a brand and to make customers feel engaged and involved
Example:
In 2014, Starbucks launched its “White Cup Contest,” which challenged customers to doodle on a cup and upload a photo of their handiwork for a chance to have it selected as the template for a limited edition cup.46 As of 2019, Instagram users were still regularly posting images under the whitecupcontest tag, as well as Starbucks’s second UGC campaign, the seasonal redcupcontest
Choose a promotion with your audience in mind.
Analyze your audience to understand interest in your brand.
Consider the capabilities and level of technical skills that are typical of the demographic group you are targeting.
Look for marketing potential.
Ask for entries that can be repurposed or adapted for use in future marketing campaigns.
Offer an enticing reward
The reward should be at least equal to the value of the efforts expected of participants.
Make participation simple and straightforward
The level of difficulty should not be too high or demanding.
Post clear instructions listing specifications for the content and how and where to upload it.
The online materials should be easy to navigate.
Ensure the legality of what you propose and offer.
Consult with a lawyer to determine who holds rights over submitted content.

The Social Media Advantage
Globally, Internet users spend an average of 136 minutes a day on social networking sites.
Social media use is a powerful trend, and there is little evidence that this trend is temporary.
Companies that have embraced the power of social media have realized significant benefits.
Social media provides banks of raw data that businesses can harvest and analyze to better understand customers’ needs, interests, and priorities.
Internally, social media can help to strengthen connections among colleagues and enhance workers’ productivity.
Social media has opened up worldwide markets to even the smallest business.
Has made what used to be word of mouth into a global stream that can be heard and seen, instantaneously and spontaneously, by millions.
Benefits to companies:
Internal and external communications
Sales and marketing—data, customer identification and profiles, sales and marketing leads
Customer care and loyalty development
Interaction, engagement, and collaboration
Brand awareness and product promotion
Recruitment
Crowdsourcing
Increased exposure and website traffic
Event promotion
Feedback monitoring
Impact measurement

The Risks and Challenges of Social Media
Learning how to use social media ethically and effectively is something companies grapple with.
The learning curve can be steep.
Canadian businesses are becoming increasingly aware of the importance of ensuring their compliance with securities regulations when using social media.
Damage to corporate reputation, threats to employee and customer relations, and fallout from failed or shaky regulatory compliance are likely outcomes when social media is used improperly or ineffectively.
Important for companies to understand their legal obligations and be ethical and transparent in their communications when using social media channels
Challenges:
time theft:
can be time-waster, with personal social media use sometimes cutting into work hours; can reduce productivity and workflow
malicious, negative, or damaging employee comments made about employers:
even a casual remark or snippet from an online conversation can be used against a business by its competitors
remarks can damage corporate reputation, threaten employee and customer relations, and/or lead to regulatory compliance issues
leaks of proprietary and/or confidential information:
can embarrass company, reduce revenues, threaten its competitiveness / survival
damage to brand reputation:
disgruntled customers or employees, through comments, have easy means to voice complaints in a way that can influence public opinion against an organization or its products and services
failed social media campaign or one that has caused a backlash is also hard to eradicate, even when controversial, misleading, or offensive product ads have been removed

Measuring Social Media Performance
outdated information
use of personal social media by corporate executives
Employees & executives used to sharing details of their personal lives through Facebook or Twitter posts may not understand the potential employment consequences of using social media to express beliefs and views about their work lives.
In 2012, for example, Netflix came close to being charged by the US Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) over information that CEO Reed Hastings had posted to Facebook and that ultimately boosted the company’s stock price.
Social media can harm individuals’ professional reputations — e.g., In 2017, the Federal Public Sector Labour Relations and Employment Board upheld the Correctional Service of Canada’s decision to terminate an employee after her Facebook posts showed that she lied about her father’s death in order to use her bereavement leave to vacation in Mexico; in 2019, Toronto radio host Mike Stafford was fired by Global News Radio after tweeting out racist, anti-Muslim statements. Although Stafford quickly deleted the offensive tweets, they had already been screenshotted and shared by journalist Sean Craig.
corporate identity theft
fraud
Security breaches of social media accounts are a threat to individuals and businesses, with corporations or hackers seeking to steal private and confidential information to use for their own purposes.
For example, political consulting firm Cambridge Analytica used Facebook to illicitly harvest user data for political advertising
legal, regulatory, and compliance violations
important for companies to understand their legal obligations and be ethical and transparent in their communications when using social media channels
For example, T-Mobile Austria had to act fast to revamp its online security after a spokesperson on their company Twitter feed revealed that the telecommunications giant stores user passwords partially in plain text; had several high-profile data leaks

Measuring Social Media Performance: Tools
Social media analytics: The gathering and analyzing of social media data, which is used to determine usage trends and measure customer interest
Corporate marketers may choose to track data related to trends and activities such as the following:
Consumption/reach
How many followers / friends
How many views / readers?
Sharing/engagement
Number of comments / likes
what content is shared
how often is it shared?
Conversion
How many audience members become paying customers?
Google analytics
analyzes visitor traffic and understanding needs of audience and customers
Hootsuite
tracks information about what is valuable to user
HowSociable
Measures social media presence across several different social media sites, assigning a score to each

Mobile Communication
Wireless
mobile devices and wireless communication have made communication from anywhere at any time a reality
Connectivity
wireless communication has given rise to the mobile network society, transforming the ways we work, find work, play, shop, socialize, volunteer, and form communities
Always On
mobile advantage has been realized in many areas of business, including recruitment, remote workforce management and decision-making, project management, and even training

Designing and Writing Messages for Mobile Devices: Challenges
Special challenges with mobile devices:
Portability—likely background noises, distractions, interruptions
Smaller screen sizes (readability)
Different user interfaces
Only a single display window that can display less material than computer monitor
Zooming and scrolling diverts attention from content

Designing and Writing Messages for Mobile Devices: Tips
Ensure reader does not have to zoom in
Place the important information first
Use a linear structure
Keep subject lines and headings short
Position tap targets far apart
Ensure links lead to mobile-optimized pages
Keep messages short and specific
Ensure image and design features are viewable on different screens
Test-view the message on a mobile device before sending
Design the message for small screens first

Writing Promotional Messages for Mobile Devices
Text message marketing and SMS (short message service) marketing involve connecting with consumers via mobile devices
becoming increasingly important in retail advertising and promotion
allow marketers to reach consumers wherever those consumers happen to be
Tips:
Confine message to the offer, its benefits, and details about how to take advantage of it.
Offer something specific of immediate value.
Gain attention while avoiding hype, slickly promotional generalizations, and clichés that can look like spam (e.g., instead of beginning with “Unbelievable prices,” catch attention with “50 off winter boots through 12/15/19”).
Create a sense of urgency and timeliness. The channel itself helps in conveying urgency, but also make time-limited offers or state the benefits of acting now.
Announce the company and brand clearly.
Communicate exclusivity and make the reader feel special. The promotion should be unique to your message and not widely advertised through a website or other channels. This will help in making the reader feel like an insider.

Optimizing Web Content for Mobile Devices
Mobile-friendly websites: Websites that display correctly on the small screens of hand-held mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets.
Mobile-friendly sites are critical to businesses
Ensuring that websites are optimized for mobile devices is essential to avoid user frustration.
Common frustration is slow loading; research shows that 57 per cent of users abandon a website if it takes more than three seconds to load
Other frustrations:
text is too small to be read without zooming in
links are too tiny or pushed together too closely to be useful
content is sized wider than the screen, making it necessary for users to scroll horizontally to see everything
Tips to avoid frustrating mobile users:
text that is large enough to be read without zooming
enabled Pinch-to-Zoom, a useful accessibility tool for users with visual impairments
dynamic type, which allows users to specify their preferred font size
content that can be viewed in its entirety without scrolling or zooming
announcement and validation success or error messages that are enabled for screen readers
Ensure contrast between text and background
Position links and tappable objects apart
Limit need for input text
Don’t rely on software not often found on mobile devices
Use good design: tight spaces rather than long, linear presentations

Instant Messaging and Texting for Business
Different organizations set different guidelines on how, when, why, and with whom it is appropriate for employees to use IM
Commonly used by:
Social media platforms, re: account security
Companies involved in marketing, e-commerce and on-line retail
Travel and transportation companies
Mobile banking, financial services and payment divisions
Company customer service divisions
A text message may be short, but it can leave a lasting impression, especially if it is mishandled

Instant Messaging and Texting for Business: Planning
Consider your purpose
Are you making a request or providing information? Text messages can lack context, so be as specific as you can about the information you are seeking.
Consider your audience
Texting style can vary based on how well you know the recipient and on the recipient’s status and seniority relative to your own.
Unless organizational style allows for it, avoid being colloquial and using abbreviations and acronyms when writing to bosses and managers.
Consider the effect on the reader
Never send a text to communicate negative outcomes to important decisions or initiatives (“Oops—lost the contract!!!”)
It can be risky to send a text to solicit new business; instead, focus first on building rapport, and save texting for answering prospective customers’ and clients’ questions once you have established a stronger relationship.
Keep the messages short and to the point
Write in complete but succinct sentences or meaningful phrases that deliver a complete thought, formulating ideas and actions to be taken in as few words as possible.
Use a friendly tone
Avoid using an abrupt tone that sounds harsh and could be off-putting to your reader.
Maintain privacy
Consider the degree of privacy your IM system provides.
Double-check your message before you send it
Auto-correct and voice-to-text features can distort or alter original messages and recorded speech in unintended ways.
Consider the frequency and timing of messages
Texting bosses and co-workers outside of work hours may not be appreciated.
Likewise, texting clients and customers in the middle of the night could sour business relationships.
Consider where you are when you text
Texting during meetings or while having a one-on-one conversation is generally not condoned

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